6 x 10.5 Long Title.P65 - Cambridge University...

466

Index

Abadai Khan (of the Khalkha) 172Abahai see Hung TayijiAbaqa (son of Hülegü) 50, 52, 130�Abbasid Caliphate 33, 122, 129, 142�Abd al-�Azız b. Nadhr Muh. ammad (Togha-

Timurid Khan) 300–1�Abd al-�Azız Sult.a n b. �Ubayd Alla h Khan 279n�Abd al-Karım (Astrakhan Khan, d. 1514)

254, 257�Abd al-Karım (Moghul Khan, d. 1591/2) 266�Abd al-Karım b. Baltay (S.u f ı Shaykh, fl .

1750s) 390�Abd al-Karım Biy (Khoqand founder, fl .

1740) 400–1�Abd al-Lat.ıf b. Ibra hım (Kazan Khan) 248�Abd al-Lat.ıf b. Küchkünji (Abu’l-Khayrid

Khan) 285�Abd al-Lat.ıf b. Ulugh Beg (Timurid

descendant) 197, 200‘Abd al-Malik b. Muz.aff ar (Bukharan leader) 409�Abd al-Mu�min b. �Abd Alla h (Abu’l-Khayrid

Khan) 297–8�Abd al-Mu �min b. Abu’l-Fayz. (Bukhara

Khan) 395‘Abd al-Quddu s b. Iskandar (Abu ’l Khayrid

Khan) 295�Abd al-Rah. ma n Afta bachı (Khoqand leader)

410�Abd al-Rah.man al-Utiz-Ima nı (theologian) 389�Abd al-Razza q Samarqandı (historian) 223�Abd Alla h Ans. a rı, Shaykh 196�Abd Alla h b. Ibra hım Sult. a n (Timurid

descendant) 197

�Abd Alla h b. Iskandar (Abu ’l Khayrid Khan, r. 1583-98) 197, 281, 283, 287–8, 289–90, 295–9, 300

�Abd Alla h b. Küchkünji (Abu ’l Khayrid Khan, r. 1540) 285, 287

�Abd ar-Rah. man al-Utiz-Ima nı (religious leader) 389

�Abd as-Sala m b. �Abd ar-Rah. ım (religious leader) 377

�Abdalla h b. Ulugh Beg (Timurid descendant) 223

Abdul-Rashid b. Sa� ıd (Moghul Khan) 266n�Abdulla h b. Muslim, Ima m 376–7�Abdulla h Khan 9, 80, 131, 183Abishqa (Chaghadaid descendant) 49Ablay Khan b. Walı Sult. a n (Qazaq leader)

370–1Abu Bakr, Caliph 242llAbu Sa� ıd b. Küchkünji (Abu’l-Khayrid Khan)

281, 285Abu Sa�ıd b. Muhammad Mıransha hı

(Timurid ruler) see Sult. a n-Ab u Sa�ıdAbu Sa�ıd (last Ilkhanate ruler) 57, 79, 93Abu Sa�ıd Qara Qoyunlu 191Abu Yazıd Bist. a mı 123Abu’l-Fayz. (brother of �Ubaydalla h , Bukhara

Khan) 393, 394, 395Abu’l-Gha zı b. �Arab Muh. ammad

(Khwa razm Khan) 301Abu’l-Gha zı b. Ilba rs (Khiva Khan) 394Abu’l-Gha zı Baha dur Khan (historian) 221,

221n, 222, 224n, 225n, 226, 230, 231, 233, 234

Note on alphabetization: All Mongol and other Asian personal names are listed in the fullest form in which they appear in the text, without inversion, except in a few cases of major literary or religious fi gures who are well known under the last element of their names.

n = footnote.

www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84926-5 - The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid AgeEdited by Nicola Di Cosmo, Allen J. Frank and Peter B. GoldenIndexMore information

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Index

467

Abu’l-Gha zı (Bukharan puppet khan) 395Abu’l-Gha zı Sult. a n (Arabshahi leader) 234Abu ’l-Khayr Khan (Qazaq leader, d. 1748)

368–9Abu ’l-Khayr Khan (Uzbek leader, d. 1468)

191, 194, 201, 237–8, 251death 226, 291, 369expansionist campaigns 222–6, 291

Abu’l-Khayrids line 277, 278–82, 286–94internal confl icts 294–6, 297–8military tactics 296–7

Abu ’l-Mambat Khan (Qazaq leader) 368, 369–70

Abu ’l-Qa sim Ba bur b. Baysunghur (Timurid descendant) 197–8, 200–1

Abu lak b. Ya diga r ( Jochid descendant) 227Abunai (Chakhar Khan) 342Achaemenid Empire 141Adai (descendant of Temüge) 163Adaqlï(-Khïzïr) (Türkmen tribe) 233–4Adshead, S.A.M. 4Af a q Khwa ja (and followers) 268–9, 271, 275Agalak (Kazan claimant) 251Aghbarji Jinong (brother of Toghto-bukha)

164, 165agriculture 35, 61, 63, 179, 404

failing yields 91manuals 137–8Qing 273, 274, 335–6relocation of colonies/specialists 136taxation 98–100, 205unsuitability of terrain 265

Ahacu 334Ah. ra rı family 295Ah. mad H. a jjı Beg Duldai 209Ah. mad Jalayir (Turko-Mongolian leader) 185Ah. mad Ka sa nı see Makhdum-i A’zamAh. mad Khan b. Kichı-Muh. ammad (Great

Horde leader) 253Ah. mad Khan ( Jochid descendant) 222, 251Ah. mad Tegüder (son of Hülegü) 123–4Aisin ( Jurchen) state 157, 158

Aisin Gioro (clan), 333, 334, 359Akbar, (Mughal) Emperor 216, 287�Ala � al-Dawla b. Baysunghur (Timurid

descendant) 192, 197�Ala � al-Dawla Simna nı see Simna nıAlan Gho’a (legendary fi gure) 20–1, 20nAlan people 136Alaqush (Tegin Quri) (Önggüt leader) 24Alash (Qazaq ancestor) 365–6alban ‘tax’ 97 albatu ‘taxable private property’ 97

alcoholic beverages, production/consumption 150

Alcu Bolud (off spring of Dayan Khan) 166Aldï Er (‘Forest People’ leader) 18Alghu (grandson of Chaghadai) 49, 50–1, 52,

61, 129Alghui Temür (rebel prince) 42�Alı b. Ibra hım (Kazan Khan) 248�Alı Quli Khan (Qïzïlbash governor) 296–7�Alı Sult. a n b. Ürük Temür (Ögödeid usurper)

59, 65�Alıka Kükeltash (Timurid Emir) 190, 192�Alim-Qul (Qïrghïz/Khoqand leader) 402,

407�Alim “The Tyrant” (Khoqand Khan) 401Alla h-Quli b. Muh. ammad Rah. ım (Qongrat

Khan) 399Alla h-Ya r (Kasimov Khan) 258Almalïq 31, 51

as Chaghadaid capital 47, 59Altai Mountains 370Altan (Golden) Khan, title of 9–10, 19, 346Altan Khan (grandson of Dayan Khan) 5,

169–72, 176, 338Amınak b. Ya diga r ( Jochid descendant) 227Amır H. usayn (grandson of Qazghan) 131,

183–4Amır Khusrau Dihlavı 210

Hasht Bihisht (Eight Paradises) 211–12Amıra nsha h (son of Temür) 185, 186, 189amirs

duties 289–90political signifi cance/activism 189–90,

301–2, 392, 393, 398–9relations between 286–9relations with government 298use of title 279, 396–7

Amu Darya (Khwa razm) region 277, 282, 393, 400

Amursana (Khoyd chief ) 352An Tong, General 51Ananda (grandson of Qubilai) 41Andijan, building of 62Anna Ivanovna, Empress 368–9Anu sha Khan b. Abu’l-Gha zı (Khwa razm

Khan) 301, 392appanage, system of 37–9, 280–2, 294, 302Aq Orda (‘White Horde’) 81, 82Aq Qoyunlu people 202Aq-Sara yı (historian) 98Ara Bolud (son of Dayan Khan) 166Arabs 96�Arabsha h ( Jochid descendant) 224






Index

468

�Arabsha hı line 224, 233–4, 277, 279, 282, 300–1, 392–3

Ardabıl (S.afavid ancestor) 123Arghun (tribe) 202Arghu n Khan (son of Hülegü) 90, 101–2n,

123, 130Arigh Böke (son of Tolui) 39–40, 49, 76, 129Arshad ad-Dın, Shaykh 262Arsk (city) 309, 310Arsu Bolud (off spring of Dayan Khan) 166art 149–50, 212artisans 335

relocation 136–7, 147–8, 192–3, 269Arughtai (post-Yuan chieftain) 162–3Ashina (Türk Qaghan) 110nAshtarkha nids 393–5, 398 Astarabad 223Astrakhan 298

confl icts over 238, 239, 240, 244Khanate 247, 253–5, 257Russian conquest/rule 306, 317–18, 325–6,

374, 380, 387, 405astronomy 138–9, 149, 195Atsïz (Khwa razm leader) 14Awrangzeb, (Mughal) Emperor 300Ay-Chuva q b. Abu ’l-Khayr (Qazaq Khan)

369�Ayn Ja lu t, battle of 39Ayuki (Qalmaq Khan) 316, 320–1Ayushiridara (son of Toghan Temür) 159Azerbaijan 76, 79, 111–12, 119, 190Azov (fortress) 320, 322

Ba ba Kama l Jandı (S.u f ı leader) 65–6Baba Tükles, Saint 242Babadzhanov, Muh. ammad-S.a lih. 378Ba bur, (Moghul) Emperor (Z. ahır al-Dın

Muh. ammad) 199, 203, 205–6, 212–17, 262n, 401

confl icts with Abu’l-Khayrid 285, 291, 293historical reputation 216literary tastes/theory 212, 213memoirs 208–9, 212–14, 215–16military theory/practice 213–15

Badakhshan 296Badr al-Dın Mayda nı (S.u f ı jurist) 130Baghdad, capture of 76Baha �al-Dın Naqshband (S.u f ı leader) 59, 196,

268Baibars, (Cuman) Prince 69Baibars, Sult. a n see BaybarsBaidar (Tatar commander) 70Baikal, Lake 18, 23, 313

Bakhchesaray, as Russian administrative centre 322

bakhshi ‘commissary clerk, administrator’ 99, 209 Bakrids 242Balazs, Étienne 94–5Baljuna, Lake/Covenant 29Balkh, Khanate of 393, 405Banna �ı (historian) 291Banners (Qing military/administrative units)

339, 340–2, 348; see also Eight BannersBa qı Muh. ammad b. Ja nı Muh. ammad (Uzbek

amir) 289, 298–9Ba qı Muh. ammad b. Ja nı Muh. ammad (Uzbek

Khan) 289Baraba (steppe) 252Bara q b. Suyunjuq (Abu’l-Khayrid) 285, 293Baraq (Chaghadai Khan) 50–1, 129–30Baraq (Oghlan) b. Quyurchaq (Golden Horde

Khan) 193–4, 222, 240–1, 363, 366Bara q Sult.a n b. Tursun (Qazaq leader) 285Barfi eld, Thomas J. 174Barlas tribe 183–4, 195–6Barsu Bolud (off spring of Dayan Khan) 166Bartol’d, V.V. 193, 230nBashkir people/Bashkiria 244, 247, 308,

314–17, 325–6, 327, 329, 383basqaq ‘tax offi cial’ 99Batïr Shah (anti-Russian insurrectionist) 317, 329Batu Möngke Dayan Khan see Dayan KhanBatu “Sa’in” Khan (son of Jochi) 32, 42, 48,

67–8, 93, 127, 232contemporary/posthumous reputation 74–5European invasion 69–72, 74role in determining succession 72–3

Batur Hongtayiji (Zunghar leader) 269, 344, 345–6, 352

Bawden, C.R. 172Bayan Möngke (father of Dayan Khan) 165Bayan-Quli (Bukhara Khan) 64Baya’ut (Bayawut) people 11, 14–15Baybars, (Mamlu k) Sult. a n 76, 103Baysunghur b. Sha hrukh (grandson of

Temür) 190, 191–2, 195, 197Beazeley, Chales Raymond 106Beijing 9Bekovich-Cherkasskii, Prince 406Béla IV of Hungary 70, 71–2Benedict XII, Pope 44Berdibek Khan (son of Janïbek) 79, 104Berke Khan 39, 49–50, 65–6, 103

accession 75conversion to Islam 126–7, 129personality/abilities 75






Index

469

Bessarabia 245Beveridge, Lord 107nBayezit, (Mamlu k) Sult. a n 186Bihza d (miniaturist) 212Bingke Bureau (Qing administrative

department) 354–5birth rates 92bitichki ‘clerk’ 99Black Death 91, 105Black Sea 102–4, 322Blue Horde 80, 81–2, 81n, 114, 221, 224n, 238;

see also Kök Ordaconfl icts with Timurids 193–4

Bodi Alagh (post-Yuan Khan) 167Bodonchar (legendary fi gure) 20nboghol /bo’ol ‘slave’ 97; see also ötegü bogholBöjek (son of Tolui) 71Bolad Agha 3–4, 110–11, 137–8, 142–3Boqa-Temür (grandson of Büri) 50–1, 55,

56–7Börte (wife of Chinggis Khan) 28–9, 31,

67, 114Bratianu, Georges 103Breslau, destruction of 70brigands 96Browne, E.G. 210bSod-nams rgyamts’o, Dalai Lama 170, 171–2Buchholtz, Lt.-Col. 406Bucher, Guillaume 43Buddhism 5, 11–12, 64, 131, 170–3, 320

adoption by Zunghars 269–70, 345, 346–8communications network 145–6missionaries 172political ideology 171–2relations with Qing government 345,

350–1, 355–6revival amongst Mongols 170–3, 179, 181

Buell, Paul 38Bujaq Horde (Noghay subdivision) 245Bükäy b. Nu r-�Alı (Qazaq Khan) 371Bukhara region/Khanate 9, 15, 111, 289

confl icts for possession of 285, 301, 393–8, 401–2

diplomatic relations with Russia 405–6economy 404ethnic composition 402–3as religious centre 65–6, 207, 388–9Russian conquest 408–10socio-political structure 403–4

Bulavin, Kondratii 319Bulghar (city) 77, 239–40, 246

as Islamic centre 390–1Bulghar (Islamic identity), 390–1

Bulgharsabsorption into Mongol state 73confl icts with Mongols 32, 69, 80language 115

Bulghars (Volga Bulghars, people) 11, 69, 73, 80, 83, 92, 115, 126, 146

Bulughan, Empress (wife of Abaqa) 41Bürge Sult. a n b. Ya diga r( Jochid descendant)

227Burha n ad-Dın Khwa ja 271Burha n al-Dın �Alı Qïlïch al-Marghına nı 205Buriats (people) 327Büri b. Mö’etüken (grandson of Chinggis

Khan) 51Burni b. Abunai (Chakhar Khan) 342Burni (grandson of Ligdan) 181Burunduq b. Kiray (Qazaq Khan) 227, 228, 363Buya n Qulï 131–2Buyan Tayiji Sechen (post-Yuan Khan) 167Buyruq (Buyiruq, Naiman leader) 23Buzan b. Döre Temür (grandson of Du’a) 58Byzantine Empire 9, 78, 142

Caff a (trade centre) 102–5, 108canonization, posthumous, of emperors 159cartography 138Catherine II ‘the Great’ of Russia 258, 312,

330, 371, 377, 385–7Central Asia

Chinggisid takeover/rule 3, 46, 53–4, 278–82geographical features 277–8political/strategic signifi cance 278Russian conquest 405–11south-western desert 404–5treatment of subject peoples 47see also names of regions/dynasties

Central Khanate see MongoliaChaghadai (Cha‘adai, Chaghatay) (son of

Chinggis Khan) 184death 72harshness to subject peoples 43, 47, 63–4interests/skills 47, 63relations with brothers 31–2, 40, 47–8religion 64territory granted to/controlled by 38–9,

46–7, 67, 114, 278Chaghadaid dynasty/territory

administration 61–3confl ict/accommodation with Timurids

189, 193, 198, 262–3, 279confl ict with Abu’l-Khayrids 293–4confl icts with other branches of family

52–60, 143, 262, 363






Index

470

Chaghadaid dynasty/territory (cont.)genealogy 45geographical extent 114, 278institutional development 89internal divisions 182–3, 261–2languages/ethnicity 116–17, 119military role within Empire 60religion/culture 64–6, 122, 128–33Ulus Chaghatay (Transoxania) 60, 66

Chaghan (interpreter/translator) 137Chakhar people 179, 181

Banners 341–2confl icts with Qing 333, 341

Chakhundorji (Khalkha Khan) 346Chakrı and Chingız Oghla n (Golden Horde

Khan) 239Chala-Qazaqs 384Changshi Khan (grandson of Du’a) 58–9, 64Chao Hung (Song diplomat) 27, 28Chapar (son of Qaidu) 40, 54–6, 130Cheboksary (city) 309–10Chekü, Amır (supporter of Temür) 184Chengzong, Emperor see Temür KhanCherniaev, M.G., Maj.-Gen. 407–8Chimgi-Tura (city) 227, 250Chimkent 371China

alcoholic beverages 150art 149–50economy 89–90, 94–5foreign relations/trade 140–1, 266, 270–1independence of Mongol Empire 73–4languages 9(management of ) trade routes 260–1medicine 148–9military technology 34, 150–1Mongol takeover/rule 3, 89–93, 141, 147movement of Mongol capital to 76natural disasters 91relations with Mongolia 5–6relations with ‘Qara Khitai 12–13relations with Temür/Timurids 187, 189, 263reputation for intelligence/learning 152–3rule in Eastern Central Asia 261twelfth-century politics 9see also Ming dynasty; Qing dynasty; Yuan

dynastyChinggis Khan 1–2, 137, 171

ancestry 20–1, 21n, 28, 122(claimed) descent from 186, 195–6, 401conquests 18, 30–1, 46court protocol 284death/burial 31, 42

duplicity 29legacy 184–5, 338–9, 344–5legislation 34–5, 67, 97marital alliances 24marriage 28–9military/political objectives 3, 113political manoeuvres 25, 29religion 134rise to power 19, 22, 28–30, 157, 177sons: confl icts over succession 31–3; grants

of territory 37–9, 46–7, 67, 113–14will 94

Chinggisid House, Qazaq Chingisids 366, 373, 398

control of Empire/portions thereof see Chaghataids; Chinggis Khan; Golden Horde; Ilkhanate; Mongol Empire; Ögödeids; Yuan dynasty

legitimacy 95–6, 120–1, 171return to Mongol leadership 165–8, 227–8,

277–8, 283–4Chingünjav (Khalkha rebel leader) 352Chowdur (Turkmen tribe) 392Christians/Christianity

conversions to 69, 310, 328governmental enforcement 381missionaries 22, 24, 44, 78–9persecution 59, 65spread in Mongol regions 24, 42, 44, 65see also Russian Orthodox Church

Chu ba n (military commander) 90Chuvash people/language 115n, 249, 328,

381–2Cisoxania 282, 285Clement V, Pope 44climatic conditions, economic impact 91clothing, religious/prestigious 388–9

see also textile industryColeridge, Samuel Taylor, Xanadu 40colonization (Russian) 309, 326–7, 375communications systems 144–6Constantinople, fall to Crusaders 102Cossacks

conquest of Siberia 257–8, 312–13raids on other neighbouring states 315,

319, 322settlements 370, 375see also Qazaqs

Crimea 73, 77, 102–3, 115n, 239–40Crimean Khanate 246, 255–8, 307, 321–2

infl uence in neighbouring Khanates 247–8, 255

Ottoman control 256–8, 321–2






Index

471

relations with Russia 304, 306, 316, 321–2socio-political structure 249–50, 255–6

Crimean War (1853-6) 407cultural exchange 3–4, 35–6, 111–12, 135–54

agency 146–9by appropriation 149, 153–4direction 142–3fi ne arts 149–50global/historical signifi cance 153–4resources 141–2scientifi c/technological 138–40, 150–1

Cuman people/Cumania 68–9, 70–1, 116ncurrency 61–2, 76–7, 80, 82, 90–1, 238, 239,

253–4, 293paper 91Timurid 195–6

Da Qing dynasty 157Daftar-i Chingız Na ma (anon.) 259Daghestan, as centre of Islamic study 245,

388Dalai Lama

creation/nature of offi ce 171–2political role 338, 347–8, 350, 351relations with Zunghars 268–9, 338, 345,

346–8see also names of incumbents

Daniil, Prince of Galich 75Da niya l Biy Atalïq (Bukharan leader) 395–6Da niya r b. Qa sim (Kasimov Khan) 258Danyal Bi Mangghït (Uzbek amir) 302Darayisun (post-Yuan Khan) 167Dasht-i-Qïpchaq see Qïpchaq steppeDastu r al-jumhu r (hagiography) 123Dastu r al-ka tib (administrative manual) 122Dawachi (Zunghar leader) 352Dawlat-Berdı b. Ta sh-Tımu r (Crimean Khan)

256Dawlat-Gira y b. Muba rak-Gira y (Kazan

Khan) 257Dawlat Shaykh Oghlan ( Jochid descendant)

222Dayan Khan (Batu Möngke) 165–8, 176, 338

descendants/legacy 166, 168historical assessment 167–8

Dayicing Tayiji (grandson of Altan Khan) 169

Dayisung Khan see Toghto-bukhaDe Weese, Devin 241ndebt slavery 94–5Dede Qorqut (epic cycle) 118, 118nDelbeg (post-Yuan khan) 161, 163Delhi 52–3, 54, 213

Dénes, Palatine 71deportations 94Dge-lungs-pa sect 338Dın-Ah. mad b. Isma �ıl (Noghay Khan) 244Dın Muh. ammad Sult.a n (Uzbek leader, fl .

1539) 234Dın Muh. ammad (Togha-Timurid Khan, d.

1598) 282, 298–9disease

social/economic impact 91, 105spread of 4

Dmitrii Ivanovich, Prince (Dmitrii Donskoi) 80–1, 82, 307

Dobruja 245Dominican Order 68–9Don (river) 245Döregene (wife of Ögödei) 72Döre Temür (son of Du’a) 58Dost Muh. ammad Khan of Afghanistan 398dowager princesses, numbers/

accommodation 91Du’a (Duwa) b. Baraq (Chaghadaid Khan)

51–2, 53, 54–5, 64, 130Dughlat people 182, 184, 193, 194, 262, 268Durma n people 288–9

Eastern Europe, Mongol conquests in 32Edigü (White Horde/Manghit leader) 84, 85,

115, 118, 222, 237–40, 241–2education, religious 65, 207Egypt see MamlüksEight Banners 340–1Eight White Tents (Chinggisid icon) 166, 181Elbeg (post-Yuan khan) 161, 162, 163Eljigidei (son of Du’a) 58, 64Eltüzer Ina q (Qongrat Khivan Khan) 399Emba (river) 241, 244–5emir see amirEngke Jorigtu (post-Yuan khan) 161Engke Temür of Hami, murder of 162enthronement ceremony 283–4, 291–2, 295envoys, reception of 286Er-�Alı b. Abu ’l-Khayr (Qazaq Khan) 369Erdeni Juu, temple of 172Erke Khonggor Eje b. Ligdan (Chakhar Khan)

341–2Erketü Khatun (wife of Altan Khan) 176Ersarï (Türkmen ancestor) 231Ersarï tribe 231, 234Esen-Boqa (son of Du’a) 56Esen Bugha Khan (of Moghulistan) 225Esen-eli (Türkmen tribal grouping) 232, 235Esen Khan (Oirat leader) 163–5, 176, 336, 338






Index

472

estate, role in Russian ethos 382, 383–4Euclid 138Euphrosyne, (Byzantine) Princess 78Europe/European powers

cultural infl uence 64medicine 139–40Mongol invasions 68–75, 141–2New World conquests 4relations with Chinggisid Empire 43–4respect for Chinese learning 152–3trade with Mongol states 100–8travellers from see individual names

especially Polo, MarcoEvstratov, I.V. 74nexplosives see gunpowder

Fa z. il Töre (Bukharan puppet khan) 395Fad.lalla h b. Ruzbihan Isfahani (historian)

226–7Fakhr al-Dın �Alı (Rum-Seljukid statesman)

90Faraj, (Mamlu k) sult. a n 186Farıdu n Gha zı Khan 235nFarmer, David L. 107nFars (Timurid city)

confl icts over 200–1as cultural centre 195

Fayz. -Khan al-Ka bulı (S.u f ı Shaykh) 390Fedor I, Tsar 310, 313, 324Ferghana Valley 393–4, 400–1

as trading centre 205–6Finno-Ugric peoples/languages 119, 249,

380–2fi rearms, (military) use of 214–15Fıru zsha h (Timurid Emir) 190–1, 192fi sh, trade in 104, 104nFiyanggu , General 349food/drink, ceremonial use 284–5‘forest peoples’ 18, 30furs, trade in 146, 252, 313–14, 316, 336

Galdan (Zunghar leader, d. 1697) 268–9, 270, 339, 344, 346–8, 349

Galtantsering (Zunghar leader, d. 1745) 271, 351–2

Gaozu, (Han) Emperor 161Gauhar Shad see GawarshadGawharsha d (wife of Sha hrukh) 190–1, 192,

196, 202Genghis Khan see Chinggis KhanGenoa 103–4geography, study/collection of information

138, 151–2

Geresenje (son of Dayan Khan) 166, 168, 170Gha yib Khan (Qazaq leader) 398Gha za n Khan (son of Arghun) 52, 62, 90, 96,

119conversion to Islam 123–5, 145economic reforms 95, 97, 98, 137–8

Ghazna, struggles for control of 52–3, 57Ghiya th al-Dın Pır A h. mad Khwa f ı (Timurid

governor) 191Ghiya th al-Dın Tarkhan (Timurid Emir)

190–1Ghu rid dynasty 15Giano, Bartolomeo di 106nGira y dynasty 255–7, 258, 322Goes, Bento de, SJ 267gold see precious metalsGolden Horde 5, 48, 68–85, 114–15, 246, 249,

256, 304administration of captured territories 68,

72–5, 93confl icts with other Mongol peoples 49, 50,

53, 55, 56, 143, 221–2confl icts with Temür 83–5, 221currency 76–7, 80, 82disintegration 79–81, 85, 93, 237, 240–1European invasions 68–72, 82–3extent of territory 73–4importance in European power struggles

78, 79, 95interest in Central Asia 58–9naming 68religion 78–9, 122, 125–8, 390reunifi cation 82trade/revenues 97–8, 99–100, 101, 102–4

Gömbodorji Khan(of Khalkha) 168, 172Goncharov, E. Iu. 74nGonzáles de Clavijo, Ruy 187goods, movement of 140–1grain, trade in 374–5Great Horde 240, 242–3, 304, 319Great Wall of China 158

guardianship 24, 24nGrekov, Boris D. 81nGrey Horde 114Guangning (Chinese city), confl ict over 179Güchülük (Qara Khitai Khan) 13, 23–4, 30–1,

33, 37, 47Gulbadan Begim (daughter of Ba bur) 214Gün Bilig Mergen (brother of Altan Khan)

169, 170Güng Temür (post-Yuan khan) 161, 162gunpowder, invention/development 34,

150–1






Index

473

Gurii (Grigorii Rigotin), Archbishop of Kazan 310

Güüshi Khan (Khoshut leader) 350Güyük, Great Khan (son of Ögödei) 32, 43,

48, 55, 139election 72–3

H. abash (�Arabshahid descendant) 234H. a fi z. -i Abru (historian) 195, 204H. a fi z. (Persian poet) 210H. a fi z. al-Dın al-Kabır (religious scholar) 65hagiographies 123, 132–3Haixi dynasty (division of Jurchen) 334–5H. a jjı Beg Barlas 183H. a jji-Giray b. Ghiya s ad-Din (Crimean Khan)

256Ha jji-Muh. ammad Khan 240–1, 242, 251–2H. akım Ata , Saint 250Hambaghai (early Mongol leader) 21, 22nHammer-Purgstall, Joseph von 81nH. ammu yı, Sa�d al-Dın (S.u f ı leader) 123, 124H. ammu yı, S.adr al-Dın Ibra hım 124–5Han dynasty 261, 333H. anaf ı legal school 207H. aqq-Naz.ar b. Qasim Khan (Qazaq leader)

244, 364H. aydar, Mırza Muh. ammad (historian) see Mı

rza Muh. ammad H. aydar DughlatH. aydar b. Sha h Murad, Amır (Bukharan

leader) 284, 396–7Hayton (Het�um), Prince of Armenia 153heir apparent, offi ce/title of 280, 293Helin province see MongoliaHenry II, Duke, of Silesia 70Herat, as Timurid capital 190, 198, 200,

205–7architectural development 211confl icts over 203, 212, 223, 291, 293–4,

296–7as cultural centre 208–12

He�tum see HaytonHö’elün (mother of Chinggis Khan) 28Hong Li, Emperor see Qianlong EmperorHong Taiji (Qing Emperor), 333, 337–8, 339,

340, 342, 344–5, 357, 359: see also Hung Tayiji

Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang/Ming Taizu) 91, 160, 174–5

horsesrole in Chinese economy 334role in Mongol aims/strategy 112–13

Huizong, Emperor see Toghan TemürHülegeid dynasty see Ilkhanate

Hülegü 39, 40, 49–50, 76, 79, 90, 98, 114, 127, 136

confl ict with �Abba sids 142confl ict with family rivals 143scientifi c interests 138–9

Huma yu n, (Moghul) Emperor 213, 216Hung Tayiji, (Qing) Emperor 157, 180–1;

see also Hong TaijiHungary 9

Mongol invasion 69, 70–2religion 68–9

H. ur u f ı sect 191, 196H. usa m ad-Dın b. Sharaf ad-Dın al-Bulgha r ı

(religious writer) 390H. usayn b. Janïbek (Astrakhan Khan) 254H. usa m Bayqara (Timurid ruler) see Sult. a n-

H. usa m Bayqara

Iakubovskii, A.I. 81n, 84�Iba d Alla h b. Iskandar (Abu ’l-Khayrid Khan)

295Iba q Khan (Shibanid descendant) 226, 242,

251–2, 253Ibn al-�Alqamı (Caliphate statesman) 90Ibn al-Fuwat.ı (historian) 122–3Ibn al-Naf ıs (Egyptian polymath) 133Ibn Bat. t.u t.a (historian) 59, 130Ibn Khaldu n (polymath) 91Ibn Taymıya (religious scholar) 125Ibra hım b. Mah. mu d (Kazan Khan) 247Ibra hım b. Muh. ammad-Tula k, Ima m 376–7Ibrahim (Oirat leader) 167Ibra hım Sult. a n b. Sha hrukh (grandson of

Temür) 190, 191–2, 195Ikhtiya r al-Dın b. Ghiya th al-Dın al-H. usaynı

207I. l-Arslan (Khwa razm leader) 14n

Ilba rs (�Arabshahid descendant, d. 1622) 234

Ilba rs Khan (of Khiva, d. 1740) 394Ilchi Temür see Taishi OghlanIlkhanate

confl icts with �Abba sids 142–3confl icts with other Mongol states 52, 55,

56–7, 143disintegration 93, 102, 185founding 114, 127institutional development 89rebel groups 96religion 122–5scientifi c/medical interests 138–9Timurid claim to 185trade/revenues 97–8, 102, 103–4






Index

474

Ima m Qulı b. Dın Muh. ammad (Togha-Timurid Khan) 282, 299–300

Inanch Bilge Bögü Khan (Naiman leader) 23India

languages 16–17Mongol incursions 54Timurid invasion 214–15

Inner Horde (Qazaq migrants to Russia) 371–2, 375

Innocent IV, Pope 36–7, 43Iran

independence of Mongol Empire 73–4inter-tribal relations 288–9mints 101–2nMongol rule 3, 90occupation of Mongol/Central Asian

territory 394–6trade 90, 101–2n, 140–1see also Ilkhanate

Iraq, Mongol rule 90Irbit 385Irda na Biy (Khoqand leader) 401Irtysh (river) 244, 313, 363, 368, 370 �Isa Kelemachi (‘Isa the Interpreter’) 139Isen Bugha (Moghul Khan) 264–5Isfandiya r Sult. a n (Arabsha hi leader) 234Ishim (Qazaq Khan, d. 1628) 364, 367Ishim Sult. a n (Qazaq Khan, d. 1797) 369Ishterek Biy (Noghai leader) 319Iskandar b. Janïbek (Abu ’l-Khayrid Khan)

281, 295Iskandar b. ‘Umar Shaykh (grandson of

Temür) 189, 190, 195Iskandar Qaraqoyunlu 191Islam

attitudes towards unbelievers 94, 106, 107–8

communication networks 145–6conventional scholarship on 121–2conversions to 15n, 41, 62, 65–6, 75, 120–1,

123–5, 130–1, 132, 221–2n, 230, 252, 262

education/scolarship 65, 129, 207, 376, 385, 387–91; signifi cant trends 389

European diasporas 84–5imposition in Mongol territories 58, 78,

127–8, 130–1, 132–3legitimising role 121, 242, 252–3political ideology 280political infl uence 290–1pre-existence in Mongol-occupied

territories 128–9resistance to 131–2

in Russian territories 310, 375–9, 381–91; revival 377–9, 387–91; Spiritual Assemblies 377, 386–7

Shı�ı vs. Sunnı 125, 207slavery under 94spread in Mongol territories 4, 64, 65–6,

115, 116–17, 120–34, 252–3, 280Sunnı 216–17suppression 42–3, 63–4, 133–4, 328–9, 381;

calls for 378survival in conquered territories 310in Timurid empire 196see also Hanafi ; Shari�a; Sufi sm

Isla m-Gira y b. Muh. ammad-Gira y (Crimean Khan) 255

Isma �ıl Biy b. Mu sa (Noghay Khan) 243–4, 306Isma �ıl (Chaghadayid Khan) 268Issyk-Kul, Lake/region 57, 407–8

Christian community 65Italy

slave trade 105–6, 108surnames 106n

Iurii Vsevolodovich, Grand Prince 69–70Ivan III, Grand Prince of Muscovy 248, 253,

304, 307–8Ivan IV ‘the Terrible’, Grand Prince/Tsar 31,

246, 303, 304–6, 308, 311, 380, 405Ivan Kalita, Prince 79�Izz al-Dın Kai Ka �u s II 98

Jabba r-Bırdı (son of Toqtamïsh) 239Jagiello, Grand Duke, of Lithuania 81Jaha ngır, (Mughal) Emperor 287, 300Jaha ngır (Qazaq Khan, d. 1652) 364, 367Jaha ngır (son of Temür) 186Jaha ngır b. Bükäy (Qazaq Khan, d. 1845) 373,

377Jala l ad-Dın (son of Toqtamïsh) 237, 238–9Ja la yirı, Qa dir-�Alı-Bek (historian) 251–2,

259, 390jam (postal relay system) see yamJama l ad-Dın, Shaykh 262Jama l al-Dın (astronomer) 138Jama l Qarshı (Muslim writer) 130Ja mı, �Abd al-Rah. ma n 208, 210–11Jamuqa (blood-brother of Chinggis Khan) 29Ja n-�Alı b. Alla h-Ya r (Kazan Khan) 249, 258–9Ja n-Törä b. Ay-Chuva q (Qazaq Khan) 369Jan Wafa Biy (associate of Shïba nı Khan) 289Ja nı Muh. ammad b. Ya r Muh. ammad (Togha-

Timurid Khan) 298–9Janïbek b. Baraq (Qazaq leader) 224–5, 227,

243, 363, 366, 368






Index

475

Janïbek b. Khwa jah (Abu’l-Khayrid Khan) 282descendants of, confl icts with family rivals

294–5, 296, 299Janïbek b. Mah. mu d (Astrakhan Khan) 254Janïbek Khan (son of Özbek) 79, 93, 104–5,

107, 231, 231nJao Modo, battle of (1696) 349jasagh (local Mongol offi cial, under Qing)

342–3, 351, 356, 357–8jasagh (jasaq)/yasa (Mongol legal code) 34–5,

47, 63, 64, 67, 97, 195, 198, 280compatibility with Islam 286, 290

Jasaghtu Khan (Khalkha title) 345–7Jayiq River see Ural (river)Jebe, General 30–1, 47Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu (Buddhist

authority fi gure) 347–8, 358Jemboyluq Horde (Noghay subdivision) 244,

245Jenkinson, Anthony 405Jete people 117, 182Jianzhou Jurchen 334–5, 339Jiha n Khwa ja 271Jın dynasty see Jurchen dynasty ( Jın)Jochi Qasar (brother of Chinggis Khan) 40–1Jochi (son of Chinggis Khan)

death 32, 47, 67legitimacy 31military exploits 18, 30, 161–2off spring 67–8territory granted to 67, 114, 221

Jochid dynasty/territory 114–16, 221–3, 250–1, 278–82

struggles for control of 237–41see also Blue Horde; Golden Horde; White

HordeJohn, Prince (of the Önggüt) 44judiciary, appointment/function 35Julian, Brother 36, 37, 68–9Jumaduq ( Jochid Khan) 222Junior Zhüz 245, 364–5, 367–71, 373, 376–7,

398Jurchen dynasty ( Jin) 3, 9–10, 19, 22, 26, 27

29, 94confl icts with Mongols 21, 22n, 25, 30, 32,

33–4Jurchen people

alliance with Mongols 169, 180, 181allies/subject peoples 23, 24confl icts with Mongols 178–81internal confl icts 336return to power/renaming 157, 158, 169,

175, 177, 178, 181, 333, 337–8

social structure 336–7subdivisions 334–5, 336see also Da Qing dynasty; Manchu dynasty

Justinian, Roman Emperor 95Juvainı (historian) 34–5, 99, 124, 126Ju yba rı family 295Ju zja nı (historian) 127

Ka bul-sha h (Timurid puppet khan) 132Kama (river) 243, 247, 314Kangxi, Qing Emperor (Aisin Gioro Xuanye)

339, 342, 347–9, 351, 355, 360Karakorum see QaraqorumKarım-Bırdı (son of Toqtamïsh) 238, 239Kashgharia 9, 116–17, 193, 262–3, 353Kasimov, city/Khanate 247, 258–9, 305,

324, 326, 380Kaufman, A.P. von, General 408–9, 410Kazan (city) 246, 309Kazan Khanate 245–50, 256

administration (from Moscow) 309geopolitical situation 247incorporation into Russian state 308–10internal confl icts 247–8resistance to Russian rule 308, 310–11Russian conquest/rule 303–9, 324, 326–7,

329–30, 380, 387, 405social structure 249–50territorial extent 246–7, 247n

Kebek Khan (son of Du’a) 55–8, 60, 62, 63, 130

Kebek (son of Toqtamïsh) 239Kel-Ah. mad (Kazan leader) 249Keldibek (Golden Horde Khan) 80Keneges tribes 393–4, 397Kereyit people 21–2, 23, 24, 27, 42, 113

alliances/confl icts with Mongols 29Khalıl Sult. a n b. Amıra nsha h (grandson of

Temür) 189–90Khalıl Sult. a n b. Yasawur 59, 131Khalkha, Tribal Camps of 166, 168, 170, 172,

180confl icts with Zunghar 347–8, 351internal confl icts 346–7Qing legal code 358–9relations with Qing 269–70, 339, 344–6, 352submission to Qing 348–9

Khanbaligh (Chinggisid capital) 40, 41, 43, 44Khanza da (daughter-in-law of Temür) 186,

189Kharachin people 180Khazar Empire 2Khid.r Khwa ja(Chaghadayid Khan) 186, 262–3






Index

476

Khitan dynasty 2, 9, 20, 111alliance with Mongols 33–4, 37overthrow 26

Khitay (Uzbek tribe) 397Khiva, Khanate of 371, 393, 398–400

confl icts with Bukhara 397diplomatic relations with Russia 405–6economy 404Iranian invasion 394–5language/culture 403Russian conquest 409–10socio-political structure 403–4

Khmel’nitskii, Bogdan 257–8Khoqand, Khanate of 370–1, 400–4

confl icts with Bukhara 397, 398, 401–2economy 404ethnic composition 403expansionist policies 401–2language/culture 403Russian conquest 408–10socio-political structure 403–4

Khorchin people 180, 340n, 341, 356, 358–9Khorezm see Khwa razmKhoshut people 350Khoyd people 352Khuda ya r b. Shır �Alı (Khoqand Khan) 402,

408, 410Khuda yda d Dughlat, Emir 189–90, 190, 193,

263, 264Khudiakov, M.G. 247nKhurasan 183–4, 196, 230, 404–5

Chinggisid/Uzbek rule 298confl icts over 52, 56–7, 96, 197, 200, 227–8,

281, 293–4, 296–7Timurid rule/economy 205–6Turkmen migrations to 235–6, 392–3

Khutukhtai Sechen Khung Tayiji (great-nephew of Altan Khan) 170

Khwajas see sayyids Khwa ndamır (historian) 226Khwa ndamır, Ghiyas ad-Dın Muh. ammad

204Khwa razm (Khorezm) state /territory 10,

13, 14–15, 47, 73, 80, 126, 129, 184, 230, 398–400

confl icts with Bukhara 397–8confl icts with Mongols 30–1, 33, 37, 46, 301internal confl icts 392–3language 16, 114nTimurid attacks/rule 184–5, 186, 190, 238–9Turkmen migrations to 233–5Uzbek attacks/rule 227–8, 232, 233–5, 291see also Amu Dayra

Kichi Muh. ammad b. Temür Khan (Great Horde founder) 240, 242–3, 245–6, 248, 253, 256

Kiev, Mongol capture of 69–70Kim Ho-dong 262, 262nKira y b. Baraq (Qazaq leader) 224–5, 227, 243,

363, 366Kish (Timurid capital) 192Kök Orda (‘Blue Horde’) 81, 82Könchek (son of Du’a) 55Körgüz (George), Prince (of the Önggüt) 44Körgüz (governor of Khurasan) 48Körgüz (son of Temür Khan) 53Köten, Prince (of the Cumans) 71koumiss (ceremonial drink) 150, 284–5Kubak (son of Toqtamïsh) 238Kublai Khan see Qubilai KhanKubraviyya (S.u f ı order)Küchkünji (Abu’l-Khayrid Shibanid Khan)

281, 282, 285, 287, 288, 293, 294Küchüm (Siberian Khan) 250, 251–3, 313, 315

Lamaism 95Latter Jin ( Jurchen) dynasty 337, 339; see also

Aisin stateLazhang Khan (Khoshut leader) 350legitimacy, eff orts to establish

Manchu/Qing 338, 344–5Mongol 95–6, 120–1, 242, 344–5Timurid 195–6Zunghar 345, 346–7

Liao people 9–10, 11–12, 19, 20, 113Liegnitz, battle of (1241) 70Lifan Yuan (Qing institution) 342–3, 349,

350–1, 353, 354–61Ligdan (Chakhar Khan) 167, 178–81, 333, 337,

338, 339–40, 341linguists, administrative use/value 137–40literacy, introduction/spread 24, 35Lithuania 80–1, 84–5, 238, 239–40

see also Poland-LithuaniaLiu Bingzhong 161livestock, trade in 374Livonian Wars 311, 313Lixing (Punishment) Bureau (Qing

administrative department) 355, 356–8Lobzang Tayiji (Khalkha Khan) 346Lomakin, A.A., General 410–11Lu Jia 161Luqma n b. Taghay Temür (Timurid puppet

khan) 185Luxun Bureau (Qing administrative

department) 354–5






Index

477

Mah. bu bı s.adrs 65Mah. mu d b. Amır Walı (historian) 226, 283–6Mah. mu d b. Kichi Muh. ammad (Astrakhan

Khan) 253–4Mah. mu d b. Ulugh Muh. ammad (Kazan Khan)

247, 258Mah. mu d Bi Qat.agha n (Uzbek amir) 302Mah. mu d (Chaghadayid Khan, d. 1402) 195–6Mah. mu d Ka shgharı (scholar/lexicographer)

16–17Mah. mu d Khid.r (Golden Horde Khan) 80Mah. mu d Khoja Khan ( Jochid descendant)

222Mah. mu d Mırza (Timurid descendant) 203Mah. mu d of Ghazna 80Mah. mu d (Oirat leader) 162–3Mah. mu d Sult.a n (brother of Shïba nı Khan)

288Mah. mu d T. arabı (Bukharan rebel leader) 48Mah. mu d Yalawa ch/Yalavach (Mongol

administrator) 35–6, 48, 99, 129Mah. mu tak (brother of Iba q) 251–2Maidiribala (son of Ayushiridara) 159–60Makata, Princess 181Makhdu m-i A�z.am (Naqshbandı master)

268Mamai, Emir (Golden Horde) 80–1, 84Mamat (descendant of Taybugha) 251Mamich-Berdei (Tatar leader) 308Mamlüks

confl icts with Temür 186relations with Golden Horde 76, 103, 126trade with European powers 102

Ma muq (Kazan Khan) 248, 251Manchu dynasty 5–6, 151, 181, 261, 333–4

confl icts with Mongols 339–40Manchuria 33–4

confl icts over 41–2, 334–5Mandughul (post-Yuan khan) 165–6Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 165–6Mandulai Aghulkhu (Ordos chieftain) 167Mangghala (son of Qubilai) 41Manghït dynasty 394–8Manghït tribe 84, 221, 222, 224, 225, 229, 241,

283–4, 289, 301Mangïshlaq (peninsula) 222, 232–3Mann, Thomas, Buddenbrooks 209Mano, Eiji 213Mansur (Moghul Khan) 264, 265–6, 266n,

267, 268Mansu r (son of Edigü) 242manufactured goods, trade in 374–5Mar-körgis (post-Yuan khan) 165

Marghuz (early Mongol leader) 22nMari (Cheremis) people 328, 381–2Marignolli, Giovanni di 44marriage, laws/customs 359

see also polygynyMarvazı, Sharif al-Zaman 152Mas�u d Yalawa ch (Mas�u d Beg) 36, 48, 50, 51,

61, 65, 129Ma�s.u ma Sult.a n Kha num (wife of Ya r

Muh. ammad) 298Mawarannahr see TransoxaniaMcKnight, Brian 95medicine 139–40, 148–9Menglı-Gira y (Crimean Khan) 248, 254,

256–7, 258Mengü-Temür see Möngke TemürMenzelinsk 315merchants, privileges of 384–5Mergit (Merkit) people 22–3, 24, 33

confl icts with Mongols 29–30Merv, confl icts for possession of 396,

399–400, 405, 411Meshsherskii Goroders see KasimovMiddle Zhüz 35, 368–72, 377Mihrja n Kha num (wife of �Abd Alla h ) 298military strategy

Chinggisid 33, 34, 296–7Russian 305–6, 311, 313Timurid 213–15

military technologyChinese 34, 150–1Russian 317–18

Millward, James 338Ming dynasty 91, 151, 173–7, 263, 289,

334–6alliances/agreements with Mongols 169collapse 158, 333confl icts with Mongols 159–60, 161, 167,

169, 174–7, 334foreign relations/trade 266–7frontier policy 157–8tribute system 173, 266–7

Ming Taizu, Emperor see Zhu YuanzhangMing (Uzbek tribe) 400–1mints 101–2nMır �Alı Shır (poet) 211Mır H. usayn see Amır H. usaynMırkhwa nd (historian) 226Mırza Muh. ammad H. aydar Du ghla t

(historian) 132, 194, 214, 225, 226–7, 228, 263–4, 263n, 265, 272–3, 286

Mö’etüken (son of Chinggis Khan) 48, 51Moghul, Mughu l 110–11, 114






Index

478

Moghul Khanate 261–7, 363–4‘culture clash’ 264–5distinguished from Moghulistan 262nneighbouring races’ disdain for 263–4political instability 265political signifi cance 263trade/diplomatic relations with China

266–7Moghulistan 116, 117, 182, 184, 200, 224–5,

262, 262n, 365geographical extent 260see also Moghul Khanate; Xinjiang

Moldova, Mongol invasion 71Molon (post-Yuan khan) 165Möngke, Great Khan (son of Tolui) 32, 39, 43,

75–6, 94, 113, 126confl icts with rival claimants 48–9death 143election 73wife of, religious endowments 65–6

Möngke Temür (Nurhaci’s ancestor) 335Möngke Temür Khan (grandson of Batu) 50,

53, 76–7, 103Mongol Empire(s) 1–2

administration 34–6, 37, 89–100, 135–7atlases 138capital(s) 35, 40, 144, 285ceremonial traditions 283–6communications 144–6contribution to world history 135cultural exchange within 35–6, 111–12,

135–54 see separate main headingcultural resources 141–2economy 2–3, 36, 60–3, 89–93, 96–108emergence 19emergence of new tribes 118–19expansion(ism) 36–7, 111fragmentation 73–4, 113–14, 237, 261;

reasons for 161geographical extent 1, 43, 73, 141, 261hierarchy (military/political) 2, 94, 112,

118–19, 147, 280, 284infl uence on later empire-builders 157–8,

184–5, 194, 195–6, 283–6, 338–9intelligence gathering 151–2internal power struggles 31–3, 38–42,

48–60, 91, 117, 143languages/ethnicity 111–12, 114–19, 137legal system 34–5, 42–3legitimacy 95–6, 120–1military resources/transport 135–6, 142offi cials: distribution/relocation 3–4, 35–6,

119; payment 147

origins 21, 26–7political legacy 4–6reasons for success 33–4rebellions 91, 95–6relocation of offi cials/population see

separate main headingrevenues 96–100 (see also taxation)subject peoples, treatment of see separate

main headingsuccession, rules of 280–1titles 279n, 280–1trade regulation 3see also Chaghataids; Golden Horde;

Ilkhanate; Ögödeids; Yuan dynastyMongol people(s) 19–21

confl icts with Timurids 199, 201‘dark’ age 157–65genealogy 20–1(hopes of ) reunifi cation 166, 345–7internal confl icts 160–5language 92n, 111nomadic lifestyle 61, 63origins 19–20, 20nn, 26–8Qing rule 340–3, 354–62return to homeland (1368) 157–8social organization 27–8, 96–7, 109–11social structure 109–11in Temür’s army/administration 187–8tribal divisions 168–9, 340nsee also names of dynasties/peoples

Mongoliacivil wars 160–5, 167confl icts over 41–2economy 97–8post-Chinggisid history 5–6, 157–81pre-Chinggisid peoples 18–25Qing rule 340–3return of Yuan to 157–8social structure 96–7

Montecorvino, Giovanni da 44Mordvin people 328, 382Morgan, David 37Moscow 79

confl icts for possession of 238Mongol capture 69, 82political/economic rise 80–1see also Muscovy

mosquesconstruction 377destruction 329

Muba rak-khoja (Blue Horde Khan) 82Muba rak Sha h (son of Hülegü) 48–9, 50, 52,

129–30






Index

479

Mughal see Mughal Empire and Moghul Khanate Moghul

Mughal Empire 60confl icts with Togha-Timurids 300derivation of name 110–11, 262nethno-religious composition 216–17foundation 216–17literary/cultural patronage 217

Muh. ammad, the Prophet 286, 390(claimed) descent from 250, 290

Muh. ammad II, (Ottoman) Sult.a n 253, 256–7Muh. ammad, the Prophet, claimed descent

from 250Muh. ammad al-Jazarı (religious scholar) 196Muh. ammad �Alı (Khoqand Khan) 401–2Muh. ammad-Amın b. Ibra hım (Kazan Khan

d. 1519) 248Muh. ammad Amın b. Muh. ammad Rah. ım

(Qongrat Khan, d. 1855) 399–400Muh. ammad Amın Inaq (Qongrat leader, fl .

1770) 399Muh. ammad b. Pula d b. Könchek b. Du’a 59Muh. ammad b. Tughluq, (Delhi) Sult.a n 65Muh. ammad Dost (Moghul Khan) 264Muh. ammad-Gira y b. Menglı-Gira y (Crimean

Khan) 254–5, 257Muh. ammad H. akım (Biy Manghït) Atalïq

(Bukhara leader) 394–5Muh. ammad Jaha ngır b. Muh. ammad Sult. a n

(great-grandson of Temür) 189, 193Muh. ammad-Ja n al-H. usayn (religious leader)

377Muh. ammad Ju kı Mırza (grandson of Ulugh

Beg) 224Muh. ammad Ju kı b. Sha hrukh (grandson of

Temür) 192, 193–4Muh. ammad Kha n (Moghul Khan) 266, 267,

268Muh. ammad Khwa razmsha h 14–15, 15n, 30–1Muh. ammad Nu rbakhsh (religious leader) 191Muh. ammad Rah. ım b. Muh. ammad H. akım

(Bukhara Khan, d. 1758) 394–5, 398Muh. ammad Rah. ım II (Khivan Khan, r.

1864-73) 409Muh. ammad Rah. ım (Qongrat Khan, d. 1825)

399Muh. ammad Sha h-Bakht/Muh. ammad

Shïba nı see Shïba nı Khan, Shiba nı Khan, Shayba nı Khan, Shaybaq Khan

Muh. ammad Sult. a n b. Jaha ngır (grandson of Temür) 186, 188

Muh. ammad Temür b. Shïba nı Khan (Abu’l-Khayrid Khan) 293

Muhi, battle of (1241) 70, 71–2Muh. sin al-Dın Muh. ammad Turkista nı (S.u f ı)

130Mu�ın al-Dın Nat.anzı (historian, fl . 1410s) 81nMu�ın al-Dın Suleiman, the Parva nah

(statesman, fl . 1260s-70s) 90Mukmikova, R.G. 221nMunis (historian) 224, 224nMuqali, Viceroy 30, 34Muqan (Türk Qaghan) 110nMurid (Golden Horde Khan) 80Mu sa Biy b. Waqqas (Noghay Horde leader)

224, 227, 242, 243, 253Muscovy

confl icts with Khanates 247–9, 253, 303–30ethnic composition 382see also Moscow; Russia

Mus. t.af a �Âli (historian) 208Mus.t.af a Khan ( Jochid descendant) 222–3Musulma n-Qul (Qïpchaq leader) 402Mut.ribı (Sult.a n Muh. ammad Samarqandı)

(poet) 287–8Muz.aff ar al-Dın b. Nas.ralla h , Amır

(Bukharan leader) 398, 402, 408–9

Nadhr Muh. ammad b. Dın Muh. ammad (Togha-Timurid Khan) 282, 283, 299–300

Na dir Shah of Iran (Na dir Khan Afshar) 302, 394–5, 396, 398

Nagyvárad, destruction of 72Naiman people 22, 23–4, 27, 288–9

confl icts with Mongols 29–31, 33, 47Najm al-Dın Kubra 65, 129Nalighu (Chaghadaid) 130Naliqo’a (Nalighu) 55, 130Naqshbandiyya (S.u f ı order) 196, 206–7,

210–11, 216, 268, 290, 295, 390, 400internal confl icts 268

Na rbu ta Biy (Khoqand leader) 370, 401Na s.ir al-Dın b. Khuda ya r (Khoqand leader,

dep. 1876) 410Na sir al-Dın T. u sı (polymath, d. 1274) 90,

97–8, 138–9Nas.ralla h b. H. aydar “The Butcher,” Amır

(Bukharan leader) 397–8, 401–2natural disasters 91

Qing aid system 359–60Nauruz see Nawruz (Emir, Ilkhanid governor)Nava �ı, �Alı Shır (poet) 205, 208, 209–11, 212Nawruz (Emir, Ilkhanid governor) 52, 90,

123–4, 222Nawru z, Emir (military commander) 90,

123–4, 222






Index

480

Nawru z Ahmad see Baraq (Suyunjuqid Khan)Nayan (descendant of Temüge) 41, 51Negübei b. Sarban (Chaghadaid Khan) 50–1Negüderi (Nigu da rı) (lit. ‘nomad’) see

Qara’unasNerchinsk, Treaty of (1689) 348Nestorians see ChristianityNeyici Toyin (Buddhist missionary) 172Nikonian Chronicle 238Ni’matulla hı (S.u f ı order) 196Niya z-Qul al-Turkma nı (S.u f ı Shaykh) 390Nizhnii Norgorod 385Noghai Khan (Golden Horde) 53, 77–8, 84, 127Noghay Horde 5, 115, 118, 238, 241–5, 249,

364, 383disintegration 244–5, 319–20, 363infl uence in neighbouring Khanates 247–8,

251–2, 255, 258internal confl icts 243–4relations with Russia 305–6, 308, 315studies 241nterritorial extent 243see also Manghïts

nöküd (Emperor’s ‘boon companions’, ‘retainers’) 2 , 94, 97

Nomuqan (son of Qubilai) 51Nu r ad-Dın (son of Edigü) 243Nu r-�Alı b. Abu ’l-Khayr (Qazaq Khan) 369Nu r-Dawlat b. H. ajjı-Giray (Kasimov Khan) 258Nurhaci, Manchu Emperor 157, 177, 333, 335,

339, 344–5, 359confl icts with Mongols 179–80, 339–40rise to power 177–8, 337–8

oases, socio-political signifi cance 278Ob-Ugrians 252, 313, 328Ocir Bolud (off spring of Dayan Khan) 166Oghuric (language) 115nOghuz Khan (mythical fi gure) 127, 230Oghuz tribe 230, 232Ögödei, Great Khan (son of Chinggis Khan)

31–3, 35, 40, 43, 71, 99, 148, 161, 184death 72grant of territory 67, 114succession to Qaghanate 38–9, 47–8

Ögödeid dynastyconfl icts with other branches of family

52–60, 103, 143institutional development 89

Oirat (Qalmaq) people 24, 96, 136, 267, 269–70, 316

confl icts with Mongols 161–5, 167, 169–70confl icts with Qazaqs 367–8

confl icts with Uzbeks 224control of Mongolia 161, 164–5destruction 352–3divisions under Qing 352internal confl icts 346–8, 352relations with Ming dynasty 164–5,

176relations with Qing dynasty 344–8, 352–3,

367–8, 370relations with Russia 319–21treaty with Khalkha 345–6

Oleg, Prince, of Riazan’ 81Öljei Temür (post-Yuan khan) 161, 162Öljeitü Khan (son of Arghun) 56, 57, 104n,

123, 130religious conversions 125

Omsk 371–2Ong Khan (To’oril) (ally of Chinggis Khan)

22, 23, 29, 36Önggüt people 24, 27, 33

religion 42, 44Orda (son of Jochi) 53, 67–8, 82, 93, 221Ordos (area of Mongolia) 166–7Ordu-Melik (Golden Horde Khan) 80Örebek Digin (‘Forest People’ leader) 18Orenburg (fortress) 316–17, 369, 373, 375,

376–7, 379, 406as Islamic centre 377, 379, 386–7

Orghina (wife of Yesü Möngke) 48–9, 50Örög-Temür b. Ananda (descendant of

Qubilai) 41ortaq (‘merchant partner’) 62, 99Orus (son of Qaidu) 54–5Osmanlï (Ottomans) 118, 119Ostyakes see ObollgriansOtchigin see Temüge OtchiginÖtegü boghol (bo’ol, bo’ul) (‘long-standing

serfs’, ‘bound vassals’) 28, 97, 113Ötemish-Gira y (Kazan Khan) 249Ottoman Empire

administration 273Chinggisid vassals 5confl icts with Temür 186conquests 108histories 208infl uence in Crimean Khanate 256–8military strategy/technology 214–15relations with Russia 306, 316, 317,

318rise in power 119

Özbek Khan 56, 59, 78–9, 104, 115, 118nreligion 127–8, 221

Özbek people see Uzbek people






Index

481

Palaeologus, Michael 102–3Panipat, battle of 214papacy

ban on Eastern trade 102dealings with Mongol states 36–7,

43–4‘Pax Mongolica’ 135Pegolotti, Francesco Balducci 98, 104, 106Perovskii, Governor 406Persia see IranPersian (language) 92n

literature 210, 211–12, 217Pest, destruction of 71–2Peter I ‘the Great’ of Russia 316, 320, 324,

325, 328, 348, 405–6Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) 103Petropavlovsk 374–7‘Phags-pa, Lama 5, 63, 171Pian del Carpine, Giovanni del ( John of

Plano Carpini) 43, 44, 68, 72–3, 74npietism 389Pır Muh. ammad b. Jaha ngır (grandson of

Temür) 188–9Pır Muh. ammad b. Janïbek (Abu’l-Khayrid

Khan) 281, 285Pır Muh. ammad b. ‘Umar Shaykh (grandson

of Temür) 186, 189Poland

Mongol invasion 70–2Tatar settlements 84–5

Poland-Lithuaniaalliance with Great Horde 304confl ict with Russia 95, 320decline 318

Polo, Maff eo 44, 101–2Polo, Marco 27, 40, 44, 101–2, 104, 144,

150Polo, Niccolò 44, 101–2polygyny 92Porto Pisano 102–3postal system 144–6, 360–1

introduction of 35resricted access to 90

pottery, manufacture/trade 140–1Pozdneev, A.M. 157precious metals

mints 101–2ntrade in 100, 105, 107

‘Prester John’ 12Pugachev, Yemelian 317, 329, 371Pula d Khan (Khoqand leader) 410Pu la t (son of Sha dı-Bek) 238Punishments, Bureau of see Lixing

qa’alghah see heir apparentQabu l Khani (early Mongol leader) 21, 21nQachi’un (brother of Chinggis Khan) 40–1Qadan (son of Ögödei) 70, 71–2Qa dir-Bırdı (son of Toqtamïsh) 239–40Qaghan (Emperor), title of 1–2

dispute/non-recognition 39–40Qaidu Khan 40, 49–54, 63

administration 60–1confl icts with Qubilai 41–2, 50, 51–2, 130currency 61–2European invasion 70rebellions against 50–1religious tolerance 130

Qaishan (Wuzong), Yuan Emperor (nephew/heir of Temür Khan) 41–2, 53, 58

qaran ‘corvée, personal duty’ 97Qalmaqs see OiratsQamar al-Dın, Emir 184–6, 193, 262

qara Hülegü (grandson of Chaghadai) 48Qara Khitai 10, 11–13, 23–4, 27, 130

creation 26dealings with Mongols 30–1, 33, 46extent of rule 12, 26, 47infl uence 12n, 35overlordship/vassals 15, 17, 18, 23, 26relations with neighbours 12–13, 14n

Qara Khojo (Uighur capital) 56Qara Qalpaqs 115–16, 403Qara Yu suf Qaraqoyunlu 190Qarachar Barlas (Timurid ancestor) 195–6qaraju ‘commoners’ 97Qarakhanids 10, 13–14, 127Qaramanlï people 118Qaraqorum (Mongol capital)

as centre of communications network 144Chinggisid rule from 23, 35, 37, 158confl icts for possession of 41–2, 51–2,

169–70post-Chinggisid reestablishment 159

Qaraqoyunlu people, confl ict with Timurids 189, 190–1, 197–8, 201–2

Qara’unas 52, 58, 60, 96, 182, 184Qa sim b. Ulugh Muh. ammad (Kasimov Khan)

247, 258Qa sim Khan b. Janïbek (Qazaq leader) 227,

228, 243, 363–4Qayalïq 31, 47, 49, 129Qazan b. Yasawur (Chaghadaid Khan) 59, 182Qazaq people/Khanate 5, 96, 115, 117, 117n,

223, 224–9, 231, 243, 266, 267, 271, 312, 320, 363–79

ancestry/social hierarchy 365–7






Index

482

Qazaq people/Khanate (cont.)confl icts with Noghay Horde 243, 244confl icts with Oirats/Zunghars 349–50,

367–8dealings with Qing 351, 370increase of power/territory 363–4migrations to Russia 371naming 225–6, 225nn, 228–9new setttlements 375, 384numerical strength 227, 228relations/integration with Russia 367–71religion 375–9Russian adminstration 371–9split from Uzbeks 224–5, 226–7trade with Russia 374–5, 406tribal groupings 229, 364–7

Qazghan Khan 59–60, 131, 182, 183Qianlong Emperor (Hong Li) 352, 355, 360Qing dynasty/Empire 6, 261, 271–6, 333–62,

370administration 272–3, 274, 275–6, 343,

347–8, 350–1, 352–3, 354–62agreements with Russia 348confl icts with Zunghars 270–1, 339, 346–8,

349–50, 351–2cultural/religious policy 274, 274neconomy/revenues 273–4, 275–6frontier strategy 338, 361–2geographical extent 333–4indirect rule 343, 353Inner Asian expansion 333–4, 338–53, 361–2legal system 356–9marriage alliances 359military organization 339, 340–3, 356–7penal code 358political tutelage 361–2postal system 360–1reasons for success 361–2rebellions against 274–5, 352(state control of ) religion 345, 350–1, 355–6studies 271n

Qïpchaq steppe/people 10–11, 14, 15, 67, 277, 410

confl icts with Mongols 32exodus from 228Golden Horde occupation 73, 81–2language 114–16, 119Uzbek control/confl icts 221–9, 402

Qïrghïz state/people 17–18, 23, 117, 146, 265, 267, 372n, 402, 410

Qïrïm (city) 239Qïzïlbash tribes 288–9, 296, 299, 396Qonghrat (dynasty) 398–400

Qongrat (Uzbek tribe) 223qopchur/qobchi’ur/qob[i]chu r ‘levy, tax’ 97, 98Qoshila (son of Qaishan) 58Qubilai Khan 5, 39–40, 44, 49–50, 92, 94, 129,

150, 161, 171confl icts with rival claimants 41–2, 49, 50,

76, 129–30, 143, 261(post-Imperial) descendants 161, 163religious practice/legislation 43, 145relocation to China 76scientifi c/technological interests 138, 139,

150Qul Baba Kökeltash (Uzbek amir) 289–90, 297–8Qul-Sharıf (Kazan leader) 250Qurjaquz Buyruq Khan 22, 22nal-Qu rs.awı, Abu ’n-Na s.ir (religious scholar)

389qurultai (clan conclave) 29–30, 32, 34, 269–70,

280, 291Qutlugh Nigar Khanim (mother of Babur) 262nQutlugh Khwa ja(son of Du’a) 53Qutula Khan (early Mongol leader) 21, 21nQutuqa Beki (Oirat leader) 24, 30

Rabba n S.awma 44Rabı�a Sult.a n Begum (daughter of Ulugh

Beg) 223Rah. ım-Quli b. Muh. ammad Rah. ım (Qongrat

Khan) 399railroads, construction of 374Rajab Sult. a n (Bukhara Khan) 393Rashı d ad-Dın 4, 18, 20, 22–3, 28, 35, 39, 41,

67n, 68, 95, 99, 110–11, 124, 125, 137–8, 139, 145, 148, 195

Razin, Stepan 315, 319, 325religion

legitimising role 121, 242, 252–3, 346–7Mongol 4, 42, 63–6, 120–34, 170–3Qing 345, 351repressive policies 42–3, 328–9Russian 11, 327–9, 375–9, 385–7Timurid 191, 196tolerant policies 64, 78, 130, 135, 327, 386–7Zunghar 269–70, 346–7see also Buddhism; Christianity; Islam;

Russian Orthodox Churchrelocation, within Mongol Empire 113–14,

118–19, 135–7populations 94, 136public offi cials 3–4, 35–6, 119skilled personnel 136–7, 147–8, 192–3troops 112, 119, 135–6

retreat(s), religious, rulers’ resort to 132






Index

483

Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. 94Riazan’, Mongol capture of 69Ricci, Matteo 44Rid. a -Quli b. Na dir Shah 394Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom 69Rogerius (historian) 70–2Roman law 95Romanovskii, D.I., General 408Rouyuan Bureau (Qing administrative

department) 355–6Rubruck, William of 43–4, 126Rudakov, V.G. 74nRukn al-Dın Qïlïch Arslan IV 98Ru m (Anatolia) 9, 90, 111–12, 118

as trading centre 98, 103–4Ru mı, Jala l al-Dın 134Russia

administration (of conquered territories) 309, 313–14, 315–16, 322–6, 329–30, 371–9

agreements with China 348Central Asian expansion 405–11construction/upkeep of fortresses 309,

311, 313, 316–17, 323cultural resources 143demography of conquered territories

326–7foreign relations/trade 11, 313–14, 316–17,

405–6, 407languages 10–11military organization/strategy 305–6, 323,

323nMongol invasions 69–70, 82–3, 141–2Mongol rule 3, 73–4, 78–9, 93–4, 95–6, 98political/military involvement in

neighbouring Khanates 244–5, 246, 247–8, 254, 257–8, 270, 303–6, 321–2, 367–71, 402, 405–11

post-Chinggisid politics 5–6pre-Mongol political situation 9, 10–11rebellions in subject territories 308, 310–11,

315, 317, 319, 325–6, 329, 380–1, 409, 410religious policy 11, 327–9, 385–7 (see also

Russian Orthodox Church)‘Time of Troubles’ 311, 312, 326trade within/between territories 374–5,

384–5Russian Orthodox Church 78–9, 306–8, 310,

314, 323, 327–9

Sa�d al-Dın al-Taftaza nı 196Sa�dı (Persian poet) 210

Gulista n 211–12

S.af a -Gira y b. Fa tih. -Gira y (Kazan Khan) 249, 305

S.afavı, Shah Isma �ıl 207S.afavid dynasty/empire 123, 282, 291, 299S.af ı al-Dın, Shaykh 123Sagang Sechen (Ordos nobleman) 97, 344–5S.a h. ib-Gira y b. Menglı-Gira y (Kazan Khan)

248–9, 257Salors (Türkmen tribal grouping) 232, 234–5Sama gha r (military commander) 90Samarqand 9, 15, 136

confl icts for possession of 285, 291Russian capture 409as Timurid capital 184, 192, 200–1, 206–7,

285as Togha-Timurid capital 299

Samur, Princess 163Sarai (Golden Horde capital) 74, 74n, 114, 186

struggles for possession of 80Saray Malik (wife of Temür) 184Saraychiq 242, 242n, 243, 244Sariq Khan (early Mongol leader) 22nSart ‘Central Asian Muslims’ 99

people 398, 402–3Sartaq (son of Batu) 42, 75Satuq Bughra Khan (early Islamic convert)

127Sayf al-Dın Ah. mad (religious scholar, d. 1510)

207Sayf al-Dın Ba kharzı (S.u f ı leader) 65–6,

126–7, 132Sayram 363, 367Sayyid-Ah. mad b. Ah. mad Khan (Great Horde

leader) 253Sayyid Alı Hamada nı (S.u f ı leader) 196Sayyid Alı Jurja nı (religious scholar) 196Sayyid-Muh. ammad Riz. a (historian) 255nsayyids (descendants of the Prophet) 250, 290,

366, 378Sechen Khan (Khalkha title) 346, 347–8Secret History of the Mongols (Mongg hol’un

niucha tobcha’an) 20, 27–8, 30, 36, 37, 161Seitovskii Posad, as commercial/Islamic

centre 385Selim II, (Ottoman) Sult. a n 257Seljuk state 9, 13, 230

confl ict with Qara Khitai 12Semënov, A.A. 221nSemipalatinsk 374–6Semirech’e 224–6, 363–4, 368, 370Sengge b. Batur (Zunghar leader) 346Senior Zhüz 364–5, 368, 370–1Sergei of Radonesh 81






Index

484

Serruys, Henry 173Sha dı-Bek b. Küchik (nephew of Temür-

Qutlugh) 238Sha h �Abba s ( S.afavid leader) 299Sha h �Alı b. Alla h-Ya r (Kazan Khan) 248, 249,

258–9, 305Sha h b. Mans. u r (Moghul Khan) 266nSha h Budaq b. Abu’l-Khayr 282, 285, 293,

294Sha h Jaha n, (Mughal) Emperor 300Sha h Mura d b. Da niya l Biy, Amır (Bukharan

leader) 395–7Sha h Oghul (son of Qaidu) 130Sha hrukh (son of Temür) 186, 188–92, 193–4,

202, 223, 238–9, 265achievement/legacy 198, 199–200cultural/religious interests 195, 196, 208

Sha hrukh Biy Ming (Uzbek leader) 400shamanism 42Shams al-Ai�ma � Ka rda rı (religious scholar) 65Shangdu (Xanadu) (Mongol capital) 40Sharaf al-Dın Alı Yazdı 211, 265Sharı�a (Islamic law) 290

compatibility with jasagh 286, 290Shaybaq Khan see Muh. ammad Sha h-Bakht,

Muh. ammad Shïba nı, Shïba nı Khan, Shiba nı Khan, Shayba nı Khan

Shaykh H. aydar (son of Abu’l-Khayr) 226, 227, 253

Shaykh Nu r al-Dın, Emir 189, 190Shaykh Sharaf 231Shiban (son of Jochi) 67Shïba nı Khan (grandson of Abu’l-Khayr

Khan) 134, 227–8, 233, 285, 288, 289, 291–3, 295, 363

Shibanid line 221–2, 224, 240–1, 250–1rule in Central Asia 278–82, 291

Shigi Qutudu (adopted son of Chinggis Khan) 35

Shigü 24Shır �Alı (Khoqand Khan) 402Shır-Gha zı b. Ay-Chuva q Khan 373Shır Gha zı Khan (Turkmen leader) 235, 393Shır Muh. ammad Khan (Chaghadaid leader)

193–4Shirin (tribe) 239, 255Sholoi Khan (of Khalkha) 168Siberian Khanate 250–3

attempted restoration 315Russian conquest/rule 312–14, 324–5, 326,

328, 330, 384–5Sighnaq (Sïghnaq) 11, 65, 193sigüsün ‘tax on food and koumiss’ 97

silk, trade in/Silk Route 62, 103, 104n, 205–6, 273

silver see precious metalsSimna nı, �Ala � al-Dawla (S.u f ı writer) 123, 130Sinie Vody, battle of (1362) 80siqagha ‘jury duty’ 97skilled personnel

exchange between leaders 147–8identifi cation/preservation 147redistribution 136–7, 192–3

Skobelev, M.D., General 410–11slaves/slavery

European 43impact on modern names 105–6, 106n, 108role in Mongol societies 28, 94–5, 110, 307trade in 104, 105–6, 106nn, 307, 322

Soghdian (language) 16–17Soldaia/Sudak/Sughdaia/Sughdaq 69, 97,

104Solov’ev, S. 84Song dynasty 27, 51, 146Sorqaqtani (wife of Tolui) 38soyurghal (‘semi-autonomous military fi ef ’)

204, 205Soyurghatmïsh b. Sha hrukh (grandson of

Temür) 191Soyurghatmïsh (Chaghataid Khan) 184Spuler, Bertold 81nsteppe

geopolitical characteristics 9, 112–13, 147, 278, 313, 317–19

new setttlements 375trade 374–5see also names of specifi c areas, e.g. Qipchaq

Subadi Khan (of Khalkha) 168Sube’etai, General 31, 68, 71Subh. a n Qulı b. Nadhr Muh. ammad (Togha-

Timurid Khan) 300–1subject peoples, Mongol treatment of 42–3,

47, 112appropriation of cultural assets 149, 153–4assimilation with (see also names of regions/

dynasties)distribution of spoils 147repressive/punitive measuressuppression of (religious) traditions 42–3,

63–4, 133–4S.u f ı Alla h-Ya r (religious writer) 388S.u f ı Oghlan ( Jochid descendant) 222Sufi sm 65–6, 123, 132, 134, 196, 206–7, 264,

389–90political/military infl uence 268, 400see also Naqshbandiyya






Index

485

S.ufya n Khan (Uzbek leader) 233–4sugar, manufacture 150Sult.a n-Abu Sa�ıd b. Muh. ammad Mıran-Sha hı

(Timurid ruler) 201–3, 206, 223–4, 225, 226

Sult. a n Ah. mad b. Abu Sa�ıd (Timurid descendant) 203, 291

Sult. a n �Alı Mashhadı (calligrapher) 209Sult.a n �Alı Tarkhan (Arghun amir) 290–1Sult.a n H. usayn Bayqara (Timurid ruler) 202,

203, 214, 226, 279ncultural patronage 205, 208–12, 213

Sult.a n Mah. mu d (Chaghatayid Khan, r. 1488) 291

Sult. a n Malik Ka shgharı 209Sult. a n Muh. ammad b. Baysunghur (Timurid

descendant) 192, 197, 200Sult. a n Muh. ammad “Mutribi” Samarqandi

(poet) see MutribiSult. a n-Sa�ıd (Moghul Khan) 265–6, 266nSult. a nov, T.I. 228Suyunjuq b. Abu’l-Khayr (Shibanid Khan)

282, 288, 291, 293, 294Suzdal’ (city) 247Suzdal’, Principality of 69Sviiazhsk, as Russian administrative centre

305, 309, 310, 326, 328Syr Darya valley 363, 367, 371, 379, 393

al-Taftaza nı, Sa�d al-Dın Mas�u d b. ‘Umar b. Abd Allah 207

T. agha cha r (military commander) 90taghar ‘donative in trade goods’ 99T. a hir Khan (Khiva Khan, d. 1740/1) 395T. a hir Khan (Qazaq leader, d. 1526) 364Taishi Oghlan (Yuan pretender) 187Ta j ad-Dın b. Ya lchıghul al-Bashqordi

(religious writer) 388, 389Tajuddin Khwa ja 268Tamerlane see Temürtamgha (‘tolls, customs duties, commercial

tax’) 97–8, 205Tana (‘on River’, ‘name of trade center’)

104, 106Tang dynasty 26, 261, 333Tangut people 3, 9–10, 26, 30Tarim Basin 260–1, 262, 265–6, 268, 272–3,

334, 353Tarmashirin (son of Du’a) 57–8, 60, 61, 63,

130–1, 182religion 58, 62, 64, 130–1, 262

Tash-Temür (Golden Horde Khan) 256Tashkent 363, 368, 371, 402, 407–8

Tatar people 19, 27, 110–11commercial activities 385confl icts with Mongols 21, 22n, 25, 28confl icts with other races 22European invasion/rule 69–72, 73–4, 75general application of name 27, 111nreligion 42Russian conquest/rule 303–11, 325–6, 385Russian use of term 383

Tatar Tonga (Uighur scribe/teacher) 24, 35Tawakkul b. Shïgha y (Qazaq Khan) 364Tawke (Qazaq Khan) 364, 367taxation 36, 60–1, 75, 93, 97–100, 205, 275–6

disaster relief 359–60exemptions 64

Tayang (Naiman leader) 23Taybugha/Taybughids 251, 312–13Taydu la Kha tu n (wife of Özbek) 104technology 150

military 150–1Teke (Turkmen tribe) 235–6, 392, 400, 404–5,

411Tekish (Khwa razm ruler) 14nTemüge Otchigin (brother of Chinggis Khan)

32, 40–1, 51, 163Temüjin (Temüchin) see Chinggis KhanTemür, Emir (Tamerlane) 4–5, 60, 82, 118,

182–8administration 187–8, 285confl icts with Golden Horde 83–5, 185–6,

237conquests 183–7, 192–3, 198, 213, 262–3cultural/religious policy 195, 196death 85, 187, 221, 263Islamization programs 131, 133legacy 198literary depictions 211, 265provisions for succession 186, 188–9rise to power 182, 183–5, 262, 279title 279see also Timurid Empire

Temür Khan b. Temür Qutlugh 238–9Temür Khan (Chengzong), Emperor

(grandson of Qubilai) 40, 53, 54Temür-khoja (Golden Horde Khan) 80Temür Qutlugh Khan (of Golden Horde)

84, 238Timu r Sha h of Afghanistan 396Tengri, cult of 149Tergen Khatun (wife of Tekish) 14–15, 15ntextile industry/trade 140texts, transmission of 137–40al-Tha�a libı 152






Index

486

Thomas, Archdeacon of Spalato 70–2Tibet 349, 350–1Tımu r Gha zı Sult. a n (Togha-Temürid

descendant) 398Tımu r/Timurid empire see Temür/Temürid

empireTimurid Empire/dynasty

administration 187–8, 204–5(claimed) heritage 195–6confl icts with (restored) Chinggisids 291–2,

295–7continuance of Mongol traditions 184–5,

194, 195cultural/scientifi c patronage 194–5,

207–12, 217decline 277economy 205–7geographical extent 193, 198internal power struggles 197–8, 199–201legacy 198military strategy/technology 213–15religion/religious policy 191, 196, 206–7titles 279, 279nsee also Sha hrukh; Temür

Tiumen’ (city) 238, 251, 313Tiumen (khanate) 247Tobol’sk (city) 313, 371–2, 374Togh Temür (Wenzong) (Yuan Emperor

1328-32) 94, 101–2nTogha-Temür (son of Jochi) 67, 224–5, 298Togha-Temürid line 256, 278–9, 282, 393

control of Khurasan 298–302internal confl icts 299–300

Toghan (Oirat leader) 163–4Toghan Temür (Huizong) (Yuan Emperor

1333-70) 42, 44, 159Toghto-bukha (Dayisung Khan) 163–5Toghus Temür (son of Toghan Temür)

159–60, 163, 175Tokharian (language) 17Töle-Bugha (Golden Horde Khan) 77Tolui (son of Chinggis Khan) 32–3, 38, 67,

114Toluid dynasty see Ilkhanate; YuanTom’ (river) 252Tomsk (city) 313To’oril see Ong KhanToqtamïsh 81–3, 93, 104, 222

confl icts with Edigü 237–8confl icts with Timür 83–5, 185–6, 237, 238death 85, 238

Toqto’a Beki (Merkit leader) 23, 30Toqto’a (descendant of Temüge Otchigin) 41

Toqto’a (Golden Horde Khan) 53, 77–8, 127Töregene (wife of Ögödei) 48törü (body of legal practice) 2Törü Bolud (son of Dayan Khan) 166Törültü, Princess (daughter of Dayan Khan)

166trade 3, 62–3, 100–8, 266–7, 374–5, 406, 407

centres 205–6, 384–5commodities 100–1, 103–4, 106–7, 140,

252, 270–1, 273–4, 313–14, 336, 374–5Golden Horde 74–5, 77importance to Mongol economies 89–90within Mongol Empire 140–1relationship with postal system 144–6routes 62, 84, 95, 101–3, 104n, 144–5,

205–6, 260–1, 266, 270–1, 316–17, 374Transcaucasia 9Transoxania (Mawarannahr) 31, 33, 47, 50,

54–5, 56–7, 59–60, 63, 82, 99, 126, 129, 182, 192, 193, 199, 200, 201, 212

confl icts over 201, 212, 223, 392geopolitical situation 260language 111, 117religion 132–3, 196Timurid conquest/redevelopment 185–6,

192–3, 198, 205–6Togha-Timurid Khanate 282, 285Uzbek migration to 288

Transylvania, Mongol invasion 70–2travels, and fl ow of information 151

see also relocationTrepavlov, Vadim V. 241nTsewang Rabdan (Zunghar leader) 269, 348,

349–50, 351Tsong kha pa, Lama 171Tudä-Mengü (Golden Horde Khan) 77Tugha Temür see Togh TemürTughluq Temür Khan 59–60, 116, 182, 183

conversion to Islam 60, 64, 132, 262tümen (fi scal/military unit) 60–1Tümen Jasaghtu (post-Yuan Khan) 167, 169Tura (city) 250–1, 313Türk Empire 1–2, 15–16, 37

Mongolian states 18–19Turkestan

ethno-linguistic characteristics 15–17, 116–17

Mongol invasion (1219-21) 31, 142Qing invasion 351

Turkestan (city) 367, 370, 379Turkic (language) 111–12, 114, 114n, 119, 252,

382–3literature 213, 215–16






Index

487

Mongol infl uence on 119nvocabulary of genealogy 109n

Turkic peoples/communities 15–17, 110assimilation of Mongol elements 73groupings 111nnheroic ethos 118in Mongolia 18–19, 22rebel bands 96in Temür’s army/administration 187–8westward migrations 111–12

Türkmen people 96, 229–36, 398, 402–3confl icts with Timurids 199, 201–2desert settlements 404–5early history 229–31migrations 230–1, 233–6, 392–3, 400relations with Uzbeks 233–5Russian conquest 410–11social structure 231tribal divisions 231–3

Tüsiyetü Khan (Khalkha title) 346–8, 358

�Ubaid-i Za ka nı (satirist) 98�Ubaydullah Ahra r, Khwa ja (S.u f ı Shaykh)

202–3, 206–7Ubashi (Qalmaq viceroy) 321�Ubaydalla h Khan (of Bukhara, d. 1711) 234,

279n, 281, 285, 291, 293–4, 393�Ubaydalla h (Khiva Khan, d. 1756) 395Üch El (Türkmen tribal grouping) 233, 234Udmurt (Votiak) people 328, 382Ufa (city) 313–14Uighur state/people 1, 2, 17, 24, 26, 27, 99

alliance with Mongols 30, 35, 37, 47language/script 35later confl icts over territory 56, 57Mongolian states 18–19, 22population 275, 275nreligion 64, 117

Ükek 83Ulaghchi (son of Batu) 75ulema (religious scholars) 107–8, 206–7, 264,

290–1, 391Ulan Budung, battle of (1690) 348Ulugh Beg b. Sha hrukh (grandson of Temür)

192, 193–4, 197, 223, 264, 287–8, 293achievement/legacy 199–200cultural/religious interests 195, 208, 213

Ulugh Beg Ka bulı (Timurid descendant) 203Ulugh Muh. ammad (Kazan Khan) 240–1,

245–6, 247, 248, 256ulus (appanages, state, people), defi ned 37–9

for individual ulus see names of tribes/royal houses

Ulus Bolud (son of Dayan Khan) 166, 167�Umar Shaykh Mırza (Timurid descendant)

203, 205–6‘Umar Shaykh (son of Temür) 184, 188‘Umar “The Tyrant” (Khoqand Khan) 401al-�Umarı 130–1Ura-Tübe (city) 397Ural (river) 221, 241–2, 244, 316, 319, 363,

369, 371Uran Temür (relative of Möngke Temür) 103Uraz Bi Ming (Uzbek amir) 302Urgench

destruction of 84, 185, 186(Ürgench, capital of Khwa razm) 80, 83, 239Ürük Temür (Ögödeid Khan) 59Urus Khan (of the Golden Horde) 82, 84, 222Uz Temür Tayshi (Oirat leader) 224Uzbek people 115–16, 118, 118n, 191, 221–9,

237–8, 286–90, 398alliance with Timurids 223confl icts with Bukhara 397confl icts with Jochids 221–3confl icts with Oirats 224confl icts with Timurids 199, 201, 203,

212–13, 214, 216, 223–4, 227–8increasing independence/territorial

attachment 301–2inter-tribal relations 288–9internal divisions 224–8, 398–400naming 221–2n, 228–9, 287–8relations with Türkmen 233–5tribal composition 228, 229, 286–8, 402–3

Uzboy (Türkmen tribe) 231Uzun Hasan Aq Qoyunlu 202, 203

Vaisov, Baha � ad-Dın 389Valikhanov, Chokan 378Vaqqa s. Biy (grandson of Edigü) 222, 224Vasilii II, Grand Prince of Muscovy 246, 247Vasilii III, Grand Prince of Muscovy 248, 258vassalage, system of 93–4Venice, trade with Mongol states 102–3,

104–5Vitautas (Witold/Vitovk, Grand Duke of

Lithuania) 84–5, 238–249Vladimir (city/principality) 79

Mongol capture of 69–70Vladimirtsov, Boris Ia. 97, 109nVoguls see Ob-UgriansVolga region 11, 69, 74–5

language/culture 114n, 115–16, 119Russian occupation/control 317–18, 323,

325, 326, 330, 380–91






Index

488

Walı b. Ablay Khan (Qazaq leader) 370Walı Muh. ammad b. Ja nı Muh. ammad (Uzbek

amır ) 282, 298–9Wa lid b. Muh. ammad-Amın al-Qa rgha lı

(Walı-Muh. ammad Isha n) (S.u f ı Shaykh) 390

Wallachia, Mongol invasion 71Wang Anshi 90Wang Chonggu 169Wanli Emperor (Zhu Yijun) 335Wenzong, Emperor see Togh TemürWhite Horde see Aq OrdaWuzong, Emperor see Qaishan

Xiaozhuang Wen Huanghou, Empress 180Xinjiang

geopolitical situation 260–1, 272–3Moghul rule 261–7, 278naming 272nQing conquest/rule 271–6, 339, 351–3Zunghar rule 267–71

Xiongnu people 1, 2Xi Xia empire see Tangut people

Ya diga r b. Qa sim Khan (Kazan Khan) 227, 249Ya diga r Biy (Taybughid leader) 251, 312Ya diga r Sult. a n b. Tımu r Shaykh ( Jochid

descendant) 224, 227Yadgar Muh. ammad (Timurid descendant)

202, 203, 208Yaghmurchï Biy (Noghay Horde leader) 253Yakuts (people) 327yam ‘imperial post system’ 97, 144Yanchichar (son of Qaidu) 55Ya r Muh. ammad (Togha-Timurid Khan) 289,

298Yarkand Khanate 266nyarligh ‘decree’ 97yasa see jasaghYasariyya (S.u f ı order) 196Yasawur (Chaghadaid prince) 56–7, 130, 131Yasï see Turkestan (city)Yayïq River see Ural (river)Yazdi see Sharaf al-Dın Ali YazdiYazïr tribe 231nYedi Inal (‘Forest People’ leader) 18Yedisan Horde (Noghay subdivision) 245Yedishkul Horde (Noghay subdivision) 245Yehe people 178Yelü Ahai (Khitan leader) 35Yelü Chacai (Chinggisid minister) 34, 35n, 161Yelü Dashi (Qara Khitai founder) 11

Yelü Liuge (Khitan leader) 34Yelü Mian-Sige (Khitan leader) 35Yelü Zhilugu (Qara Khitai leader) 13Yenisei (river) 327Yermak Timofeev (Cossack leader) 250,

312–13Yesü Möngke (son of Chaghadai) 48–9Yesün-Temür (grandson of Du’a) 59, 64Yisügei (Yesügei) Ba’atur (father of Chinggis

Khan) 21n, 22, 28death 27, 28

Yomut (Turkmen tribe) 392, 398–9, 409, 410–11

Yon-tan rgyamts’o, Dalai Lama 172Yongle Emperor (Zhu Di) 160, 175–6, 193,

334Yongzheng Emperor (Yinzhen) 360Yuan dynasty

aftermath 158, 166claims to Ming throne 158, 160confl icts with Central Asia 51–2, 54–6,

143decline/fall 157, 159, 334extinction 181institutional development 89inter-regional trade 62, 89–90scientifi c/acadcemic interests 138

Yu nus Khan (of Moghulistan) 225, 262n, 264–5, 268

yurt (capital city) 285Yu suf Biy b. Mu sa (Noghay Khan) 243Yu suf Khas. s. H. a jib, Qutadhghu Bilig 10Yüz (Uzbek tribe) 393, 395

Zahir al-Dın Muh. ammad Babu r see Babu rZaitsev, I.V. 254Zaya Pandita (Buddhist monk) 269Zhaozong see AyushidaraZhengtong Emperor 164Zhu Di, Emperor see Yongle EmperorZhu Yuanzhang, Emperor see Hongwu

Emperorzhüz (Qazaq tribes) 229, 364–5, 406Zunghar people 267–71, 338–9, 345

confl icts with Qing 270–1, 339, 346–8, 349–50, 351–3

control of trade routes 270–1destruction 352–3economy/social structure 269internal confl icts 352religion 269–70, 345rise to power 268–70, 345






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