Bakalarska Prace - Lukas Kratochvil

7/29/2019 Bakalarska Prace - Lukas Kratochvil

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Masarykova univerzita

Filozofick fakulta

Katedra Archeologie a muzeologie

Klasick archeologie

Luk Kratochvl

GLADITOR TRK A JEHO ARMATURA ODARCHEOLOGIC EVIDENCE PO

REKONSTRUKCI

Vedoucprce: Dr. Elisabetta Maria Gagetti, Ph.D.

2012


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Prohlauji, e jsem diplomovou prci vypracoval

samostatn s vyuitm uvedench pramen a literatury.

Podpis autora prce


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Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Elisabetta Gagetti for her valuable advice, her time

and encouragement that she provided me during work on this thesis. I would also like to

express great thanks to my girlfriend Lenka Hadaov for her language correction and

psychological support, which was inestimable during forming of this work and my studies.


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Content

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5

2. Gladiators .............................................................................................................................. 6

2.1 Brief history of the games ................................................................................................ 6

2.2 Structure of the games ...................................................................................................... 8

2.3 The classes of gladiators ................................................................................................. 10

2.4 Thraex ............................................................................................................................. 12

2.5 Similarities and differences: the hoplomachus ............................................................... 14

3. The Finds ............................................................................................................................. 16

3.1 Galea(Helmet) ........................................................................................................... 16

3.2 Ocreae (Greaves) ....................................................................................................... 25

3.3Manica(Arm-guard) ................................................................................................... 37

3.4 Weapons ......................................................................................................................... 38

3.5Parmula(Shield)......................................................................................................... 39

4 . The Iconographic Sources ................................................................................................ 40

4.1 Relieves .......................................................................................................................... 41

4.2 Mosaic ............................................................................................................................ 46

4.4 Decorative items ............................................................................................................. 53

5. The elements of the armature in the light of reenactment ............................................. 55

5.1 Reenactment: an experimental approach ........................................................................ 55

5.2 Reenactors ...................................................................................................................... 57

5.3 Reconstruction ................................................................................................................ 58

5.4Manica ............................................................................................................................ 58

5.5 Ocreae ............................................................................................................................ 60

5.6 Sica ................................................................................................................................. 62

5.7Parmula .......................................................................................................................... 64

5.8. Galea ............................................................................................................................. 66

6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 70

7. Summary ............................................................................................................................. 71

7. Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 73


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1. Introduction

There is a lack of modern literature dealing with particular a type only of gladiator. The

present work has the wish to contribute to a better knowledge of the armatura of the gladiator

type thraex. Two are the main ways: the first, to summarize the principal finds of equipment

and the iconographical sources; the second, the experimental reconstruction of replicas of the

equipment and armature of the gladiator type thraex from the 1st century AD onwards.

The most meaningful sources used for such reconstructions are the finds from the

gladiatorial barracks at Pompeii. The purpose of this experiment is to enlarge our

acquaintance especially about the structural elements of representative gladiatorial material

from archeological contexts.

Another aim of the present work, then, is to answer the question which qualities and

functions could original finds show in the time they were used. Scholarly studies are usually

focused on setting the artifact into its context, on its implication and function more than on the

way in which it was created. Projects devoted to the classification and function of gladiatorial

equipment are rarely focused on its construction methods, the analysis of the realization of

fixed and moving joints and other production processes. Even complex archeological studies

on this theme usually lack the documentation about the structure of the items and the details

of joints, which instead provides the best information about the techniques and the ways of

construction of such artifacts.

The active interest about reenacting of this period is one of the main reasons for

writing this work and there is a separate chapter dedicated to it 1. The reconstruction of the

armature of the gladiator type thraex is part of a project dealing with the reconstruction of

gladiatorial armatures of the 1st and 2nd century AD2. The bronze parts of the reconstructed

armature were created by Mr. Martin Junek3, who is at the top of world-class armory crafters.

1Chapter 5.

2

The project is brought on by the team of professional reenactors Familia Gladiatoria Tavrvs.3Armoury Maral company (for a brief overview of reconstructions of non-gladiatorial armatures belonging to

different periods, but made with the same traditional techniques, see: www.maral.cz


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His experience in bronze working enabled this experiment. The reconstruction of the thraexs

equipment was based on my own photographic documentation of originals4. In other cases it

was necessary to start from the pictorial appendix of finished projects. The reconstruction of

the bronze parts of an armature is a difficult and expensive procedure. The demand of time

influenced the creating process of last partthe thraexs helmet type Pompeii H12 which is

not yet finished. Anyway, the major part of the armature elements is ready and could be used

in this work.

2. Gladiators

2.1 Brief history of the games

The origin of the gladiatorial games in Rome is commonly connected with the year 264 BC,

when two sons of the deceased D. Junius Brutus Pera brought out three pairs of gladiators at

the funeral games to honour their dead father. Human sacrifices were already known in Rome

before this date, but this was the first known occasion in the city when a gladiatorial combat

was staged at a funeral.

The blood of warriors spilled on the funeral pyre should propitiate the gods of the

Underworld or put them into a good mood. This performance was called munus5. It was very

typical in ancient Mediterranean cultures to spill blood on the deceased relatives grave6. In

the course of time the character of munerachanged. The higher the deceaseds social rank

was, the more expensive performance was expected. These funeral rituals were very popular

with the audience, which considered the gladiatorial fight as an exciting and extraordinary

amusement.

During the second century BC the gladiatorial show spread throughout Italy and its

religious purpose was transformed into a means of political power. With time, the number of

fighters engaged in gladiatorial fights raised. Noble families vied in the number of committed

fighters so much that in many munera hundreds of gladiators performed.

Fifty years after the first mention about gladiatorial fights, in 216 BC, After the

death of M. Aemilius Lepidus, who had been augur and twice consul, his three sons, Lucius,

4

Mainly greaves and helmets from the Muse du Louvre, which are on permanent exhibition. 5Plural: munera. Its meaning is gift of living towards dead.

6Nossov 2009, p. 12.


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Marcus, and Quintus, celebrated funeral games in his honor for three days and exhibited

twenty-two pairs of gladiators in the Forum7.

In 174 BC Titus Quintus Flaminius presented seventy-four gladiators, which was

unprecedented number until that time. The funerary games lasted four days, three of which

were consecrated to gladiatorial fights8. On this occasion a wooden amphitheatre was built in

theforum boarium.

In 29 BC, Titus Statilius Taurus built in the Campus Martius the first stone amphitheatre in

Rome.

Forty years later, in AD 70, partly on the place of Neros Domus Aurea in the area

of an artificial lake Vespasian started the construction of the Amphitheatrum Flavium, well-known from the 9th century AD onwards as Colosseum, from the colossal statue of Nero

himself, later transformed into a statue of Sol, rising close to the building. It was finished by

Titus in AD 80. The Colosseum could take in up to 50,000 viewers. The inaugural ceremony

lasted 100 days and the number of wounded or dead gladiators was unprecedentedly high.

Together with the Circus Maximus the Colosseum became the most famous amusement place

throughout the Empire.

Under the reign of Trajan there were held the greatest games of ever. In 107 BC the

Emperor delivered 120-day games in honour of his victory over the Dacians. In these games

took part 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals were killed. During the next five years Trajan

delivered other three games: the third lasted 117 days and 4,941 pairs of gladiators met.

Altogether, between AD 107 and AD 113, almost 20,500 gladiators appeared in the Roman

arena.

In AD 180-192 even Emperor Commodus entered the arena and reached allegedly

1,100 victories. However, the historian Sextus Aurelius Victor (4th century AD) states that his

opponents were armed with lead weapons9. He entered arena as asecutorgladiator

The end of gladiatorial games is directly connected with Christianity. In AD 313

Christianity was accepted as rightful religion by the Edict of Milan and in AD 325 had

Constantine the Great (the first Roman Emperor who adopted the Christian faith) declared in

7

Livy 23.30.15 (after: http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy23.html; last access 5.06.2012). 8Livy 41.28.11.

9De Caesaribus, 17.4.


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Beirut an edict, which condemned spilling of the blood in public and ordered the law courts

to send culprits into jail or to mines instead of into the arena. Nevertheless, this edict was

accepted only in the eastern provinces of the Empire. On Italian territory Constantine ignored

his own decree and granted to priests in Umbria and Etruria the right to deliver gladiatorial

games. So, the games continued but not at the same extent as before.

In AD 375 Emperor Constantius II stopped the recruitment of Roman soldiers as

volunteers for gladiatorial training and fighting in the arena. Eight years later, Emperor

Valentinian I issued a second edict which prohibited the sending of criminals into arenas. In

AD 399 Emperor Honorius shut the remaining gladiatorial schools down.

However, the era of gladiatorial games was ended by a dramatic incident. On January

1st AD 404 a Christian monk, Telemachus, rushed into the arena in pursuit of stop another

bloodshed and to separate the fighters. The furious crowd stoned him to death. Emperor

Honorius made capital of this case and closed arenas10.

2.2 Structure of the games

Gladiatorial games had taken inherently their position in Roman society. The holding of

munera went through a few radical changes during seven centuries: their generally applied

structure was created soon after their origin. After they became more than a funeral ceremony,

the course ofmunera received a strictly followed pattern.

Gladiatorial fights were put into programme in the afternoon and they were the

highlight of the performance. In the morning, there were the so-called venationes11 or beast

hunting, which reflected the passion for hunting of the Romans and also should symbolize

the human domination over animals. Venationes were played out in the Circus Maximus in

the period of the Roman republic and, occasionally, also later. During the Empire, venationes

were moved into arenas and closely connected with the munera. Hunters chasing wild beasts

with weapons were called venatores, and their lower class was called bestiarii12. Venationes,

in addition to hunting, included the exhibition of exotic animals and their amusing

performances, animal fights, bullfight and also the execution of criminals by wild beasts.

10

Nossov 2009, p. 25.11More generally, any kind of spectacle with animals in the amphitheatre or circus was called venatio.

12They had no weapons and served as beaters of animals..


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The space of time between morning venationes and afternoon gladiatorial

performances was filled designated for executions of the so-called noxii13. These condemned

persons were massacred in many various ways. Such criminals were thrown unarmed to the

beasts or had some weapons and were forced to kill each other. In one of the execution ways

also gladiators played a part. They were sent in lesser numbers against numerically superior

but poorly armed noxii, who had no chance against professionally trained fighters. For this

purpose were gladiators armed with bizarre weapons14.

The beginning of the gladiatorial show was called pompa. This ceremonial parade had

a political character and its main aim was making visible the editorhimself (organizer and

sponsor) of the games. The organizer of the games was followed by lictors and musicians,

and these were followed by men carrying a ferculum15

. At the end of the parade walked the

gladiators themselves. A group of assistants carried the helmets, shields and weapons of

gladiators. On the occasion of the parade, audience could see revealed the faces of the

gladiators (otherwise protected by the helmets). Before the beginning of the performance

there was theprolusio16which should warm up the audience before the real fights. After this

the gladiatorial fights begun.

A special kind of games was naumachia17. It was an unusual and astronomically

expensive form of reproducing sea battles, which owing to its costs belonged to the privilege

of the emperors and was not held as often as gladiatorial games. The first naumachiae were

produced by Caius Julius Caesar, who in the first century BC launched colossal gladiatorial

games and theatrical performances. Thanks to their scale, naumachiae were not usually held

in arenas but on artificial water dams or lakes nearby Rome. Although, there were some cases

in which naumchiae were realized right in an arena. Such arenas were specially designed for

these occasions, and could be flooded. In these battles were attended thousands of convicted

criminals who staged famous sea battles in history. These criminals fought for death and

gladiators were involved only extraordinarily.

13Usually condemned to the death in the arena for capital crimes.

14Wilson S.2001, p. 32.

15Portable platform bearing the statues of Hercules, Nemesis, Mars, Nike or other gods or important persons.

16

Prologue with gladiators (lusorii) fighting against each other with harmless probably wooden weapons(arma lusoria).17

Sea battle.


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Venationes and naumachiae are an inseparable part of history of gladiatorial games,

but their issue, because of the amplitude of the topic, is suitable for an individual study. In the

present work will not be paid attention to them anymore.

2.3 The classes of gladiators

(According to Nossov 2009, p. 4479)

It is very easy to observe which type of gladiator was coming into the arena according to the

period. Their equipment, armature and fashion were subordinated to period and popularity.

Generally, gladiators were classified according to their armatures into three categories: light

armoured, medium armoured and heavy armoured.

The most ancient types of gladiators aregallus,samnis and veles. Thegallus appeared

in the arena at the beginning of the Republic and disappeared in the middle of the first century

BC. It is very likely that the term gallus comes from the resemblance with Celts (Gauls). The

first mention of the samnis is in 308 BC. The term is derived from the Samnites, people

defeated by the Romans at the beginning of the third century BC. Finally, almost nothing is

known about the veles. Probably, he was armed as the light infantrymen of the Roman

Republic: with javelins, sword and shield. In the second century BC came into the arena the

venatores(beast hunters).

Next, during the first century BC came thraex18, hoplomachus19,murmillo, , secutor,

essedarius and riders equites. In this period is classified also scissor. This type of gladiator

soon disappeared and reappeared again in the second and third century AD under the name of

arbelas. Heavy armoured gladiator garbed in chain or scale male. He was fighting with sword

or dagger and with special type of weapon with crescent-sickle blade. His adversary was

retiarius, arbelas or dimachaerus. From the arena he disappeared in third century BC.

Murmillo was a heavy armoured gladiator armed with sword gladius and using a large shield

scutum. He was usual adversary of thraex and hoplomachus. Secutor was heavy armoured

gladiator equipped same way as a murmillo except helmet which is closed plain with small

holes for the eyes created for fighting against a retiarius, who was his only adversary.

Together with murmillo remain in the arena to the end of the games. Essedarius, the term

means charioteer. He was armed by sword and round large shield. He disappeared from the

18Chapter 2.4.

19Chapter 2.5.


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arena in third century BC. Equites are horse riders belonging to the medium armoured

gladiators. They were fighting only with anotherequites. For fighting on horseback, they were

armed by lance hasta and for fighting on foot they were using gladius. For protection, they

were equipped by middle-large round shield parma equestris. Equites disappeared from the

arena in fourth century BC.

At the end of the Republic came into the arena the provocator. He was medium

armoured gladiator. He was fighting withgladius and middle-large shield. His adversary was

anotherprovocator.

In the first century AD appeared on stage the retiarius. Light armoured gladiator, the

only one without helmet. He was fighting with tridentfuscina, net rete and daggerpugio. His

only adversary was secutor. Popularity of the pair retiariussecutor rose very fast and

became soon the most popular gladiatorial pair, even more than the pair thraexmurmillo,

which had been the most favourite pair until that time.Retiarius remained in the arena to the

end of the games. In the first century AD showed also up the paegnarius, his gladiatorial

classification is controversial, because his purpouse was only to entertain the crowd only with

blunt weapons. In the second century AD appeared the dimachaerus. Possible translation of

this name is two-handed. He was fighting with weapons in both hands, pair of daggers or

swords. He was garbed in chain or scale male. His adversary was probably also dimachaerus

orarbelas.

There are also gladiators whose presence in the arena was registered but whom we are

not able to categorize in a period: sagittarius - bowman, laquerarius - probably variation of

retiarius and crupellarius - the only known fact is that he was whole garbed in steel.

From the early fifth century AD, the fame of gladiators and games declined, and also

declined the interest in this theme, anyway. Gladiators were in focus again in the eighteenth

century, when the gladiatorial barracks were excavated in 1766 in Pompeii: there, the largest

quantity of archaeological material until nowadays was preserved. Also the nineteenth century

was under the sign of figurative and literary depictions of the gladiatorial theme. The

twentieth century continued with movies in which gladiators were mainly Hollywood

characters: therefore, their popularity with the great public lasts so far.


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2.4 Thraex

The thraex as a type of gladiator appeared for the first time in the arena in first half of the 1 st

century BC. He is connected with the Mithridatic Wars, when a great number of war prisoners

from Thrace was caught by the Roman army. It happens quite often that ethnic Thracian

origin is mistaken with gladiator type, whose strictly defined armature arms, equipment and

fighting style had nothing to do with that of Thracian warriors20. Men who were fighting as

this type of gladiator could probably be both Roman ex-citizens and trueborn Thracians. The

best known representative of this armature in the history of gladiatorial games was Spartacus,

the gladiator who, arousing a revolt from Lentulus Batiatus ludus gladiatorius in Capua,

became the leader of the slaves in the Third Servile War, sending a shudder through the whole

Italy in 79 BC21

. This incident changed the view of society on gladiators. Spartacus hadprobably Thracian ethnical origin, but he was also a thraex by type of armature.

There is a lack of historical sources about gladiator fighting style, which could inform

us about used technique or style of fighting as good as the still extant Anonymous Fechtbuch

-Manuscript I.33, a 13th-century German sword & buckler manual22. To the 2nd century dates

Artemidorus Oneirocritica, a work on dreams: when a man dreams of fighting as a gladiator,

such dream announce the marriage with a kind of woman corresponding to the used armature

or to the oppponent against whom one fights23. For instance, to thraex corresponds a rich,

cunning and eager to excel woman: rich because thraex is protected by a good armour,

cunning, because thraex fights with a curved blade, eager to excel, because he acts

aggressively. The thraex armature begged to this style of fight abbr. Chapter 4

Since its entry in the arena in the first half of the 1st century BC, the pair thraex and

murmillo was the most popular and most often offered to the audience. Its popularity

surpassed that of the pair retiarius versus secutor as late as the 1st

century AD. Manyemperors admired specific types of gladiators and had their favourites among them. Emperor

20Nossov 2009, p. 68.

21Because of the amplitude of the topic, please refer directly to Strauss, Barry. The Spartacus War. New York -

London: Simon & Schuster, 2009.22

Tower of London manuscript I.33; Royal Library Museum, British Museum No. 14 E iii, No. 20, D. vi. Some

examples of the sketches illustrating different techniques can be found athttp://www.thearma.org/Manuals/i33/i33.htm (last access: 4.6.2012).23

Artemidorus Daldianus, Oneirocritica 2.33
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Servile_Warhttp://www.thearma.org/Manuals/i33/i33.htmhttp://www.thearma.org/Manuals/i33/i33.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Servile_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome


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Caligula, for example, idolized just thraex. He even designated a thraex as the commander of

his personal guards24.

The armature of thraex is easily identifiable either from archeological finds or

depicted on reliefs and mosaics. Typical was the helmet (galea)25 with the head of a griffin, a

wide brim and a gridded visor. The griffin was believed to be an animal incarnating Nemesis,

the goddess of retribution: a lot of small temples placed in amphitheatres were dedicated to

this goddess26. The griffin head was placed on the top of the crest of the helmet. Such crest

was entirely decorated with a feather pattern, which formed the appearance of the griffins

body. Moreover, the crest was adorned with a plume of feathers (crista). In accordance with

the type of helmet, there were two small holes, one on each side of the crest, used for inserting

long feathers(pinnae).

On the right arm he had a protective armour called manica, which could be either only

quilted and stitched, or covered with tiny metallic plates, as the manica of the Roman

legionnairs. Later it could also be scaled. On both legs the thraex wore greaves (ocreae)27,

which reached the half of the thigh. The ocreae were fastened or tied on the back-side of the

calf. Under such leg protectors there were stitched bandages (fasciae), from the ankles to the

waist. Thefasciae provided an additional protection for the legs and also functioned as pads

for the greaves. The thraex, not differently from most of gladiators, wore a loincloth around

his waist, the subligaculum (Fig. 1), fastened with a wide belt called balteus. His chest was

bared. The weapon used by the thraex was a curved sword calledsica. A small square shield

(parmula) was used for defense. The whole equipment weighed 16-20 kg: this categorized the

thraex as a heavily armed gladiator.

The usual adversary of the thraex was the myrmillo28. Less common was the pair

thraex hoplomachus. More frequent was the pair myrmillo hoplomachus. Armour and

weapons of each type of gladiator were designed for providing both advantages and

disadvantages to their users. The thraex had only a small shield, but this disadvantage was

compensated by his high ocreae. By way of contrast, the myrmillo was fighting with the type

of sword known as gladius and the great rectangular shield (scutum), usually used by Roman

24Suetonius,Life of Caligula55: He made some gladiators captains of his German guards

(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0132%3Alife%3Dcal.%3Achapter

%3D55; last access: 4.6.2012).25

Galeais a general term for helmet, both for gladiators and for Roman soldiers.26

Nossov 2009, p. 156-157.27General term for greaves.

28Other spelling can be mirmillo, murmillomormillo.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0132%3Alife%3Dcal.%3Achapter%3D55http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0132%3Alife%3Dcal.%3Achapter%3D55http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0132%3Alife%3Dcal.%3Achapter%3D55http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0132%3Alife%3Dcal.%3Achapter%3D55


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legionnairs. The myrmillo wore on his left leg only a small protector and on his armed arm a

stitched or plated (scaled) manica. His helmet had a wide brim and was stylized to the shape

of a dorsal fish fin. It could be decorated with feathers and, compared to the thraexs helmet,

also with horsehair. His armature categorized also the myrmillo as a heavily armed gladiator.

To the same category belonged the hoplomachus, whose equipment was identical to

thraexs one, only their weapons being different. In connection with the thraex a special

attention must be paid to the hoplomachus.

2.5 Similarities and differences: the hoplomachus

The hoplomachus appeared in the arena in the late Imperial period. This heavily armed type

of gladiator should resemble a Greek hoplite29, more or less stylized in accordance with the

typical appearance of gladiators. He held in his right hand a spear (hasta) and defended

himself by a small round shield (parmula): its handle, designed according to the model of the

29Term for the citizen-soldier of an ancient Greekpolis.

Fig. 1. Style of wearingsubligaculum (after: http://historia-del-

vestido.blogspot.cz/2011/05/la-indumentaria-de-la- antigua-roma.html

last visit: 28. 06. 2012)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://historia-del-vestido.blogspot.cz/2011/05/la-indumentaria-de-la-%20antigua-roma.htmlhttp://historia-del-vestido.blogspot.cz/2011/05/la-indumentaria-de-la-%20antigua-roma.htmlhttp://historia-del-vestido.blogspot.cz/2011/05/la-indumentaria-de-la-%20antigua-roma.htmlhttp://historia-del-vestido.blogspot.cz/2011/05/la-indumentaria-de-la-%20antigua-roma.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece


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Greek shield hoplon (even if the hoplomachus shield was much smaller then Greekhoplon or

aspis), allowed a hoplomachus to hold a short sword or dagger as a secondary weapon in his

left hand (Fig. 2). His side weapon was not the exact copy of the Greek sword (xyphos), but

more likely a shorter version of the Romangladius or dagger (pugio). He had, like the thraex,

a manica on his armed arm, and a pair of high greaves. His helmet was similar to the thraexs

type, but without the griffin-shaped crest, which characterized specifically the thraex. The

crest of his helmet was decorated with feathers or horsehair30. Due to the same type of

equipment, at first sight hoplomachus and thraex can be easily mistakable. This begs the

question whether each of these gladiators had his own armature or if it was duplicated for

both of them.

30Junkelmann 2000, p. 120-123

Fig. 2. Bronze statue ofhoplomachus, Berlin, Staatliche MuseenAntikensammlung (after: Junkelmann M.Das Spiel mit der Todt

So kmpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)
http://www.smb.museum/http://www.smb.museum/http://www.smb.museum/


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3. The Finds

3.1 Galea(Helmet)

Most of the original finds of thraexs helmets were found in Pompeii in 1766-1767, in theludus gladiatorius (gladiators school). During this excavation several pieces of various

gladiatorial helmets were found: today, only fifteen survive, split between the Museo

Archeologico nazionale in Naples and the Louvre in Paris. Only one of them was made in iron

and belonged to the gladiator type secutor. All the other helmets were in bronze, so that we

can assume that the thraexs helmet was always made in bronze.

The helmet passed through a few stages of development well described by Marcus

Junkelmann31. The thraexs helmet is both in original, and in other artistic media depicting

gladiators easily recognizable thanks to the griffin head on the top of the crest, and is

therefore unmistakable with other gladiator type helmets. Junkelmann states32 that the

antecedent of the thraexs helmets found in Pompeii was the combination of Attic and

Boeotian helmets, created in the Late Republic (Fig. 3). In such period, typically, gladiators

fought with their faces uncovered.

31Junkelmann 2000, p. 63-64.

32Junkelmann 2000, p. 59-61.

Fig. 3. Helm of Attic type with griffin head 300 BC,

California Getty Villa, Malibu (after:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/lazymodeler/6342800943

/last visit: 28. 06. 2012)
http://www.flickr.com/photos/lazymodeler/6342800943/http://www.flickr.com/photos/lazymodeler/6342800943/http://www.flickr.com/photos/lazymodeler/6342800943/http://www.flickr.com/photos/lazymodeler/6342800943/http://www.flickr.com/photos/lazymodeler/6342800943/


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The next stage of development is the shape called by Junkelmann Pompeii Subtype

H733 which had a straight brim and round visors, unlike Pompeii Subtype H1234 and Pompeii

Subtype H1335, which have a bent brim and whose visors are greater, triangular and with an

upper edge following the brim. Other differences are in the attaching of visors, crest structure

and in the system of closing the front mask. To the construction and decorative details is

devoted, here below, Chapter 5. It is obvious, according to the finds from Pompeii, that the

former and latter types of helmets were used contemporarily36. The weight of the helmets

found Pompeii ranges between 3.3 and 6.8 kg: the average weight is approximately 4 kg37.

Average thickness of material is approximately 1,5 mm.

33Entry 3.1.A.2

34Entry 3.1.A.1

35

Entry 3.1.A.336 Nossov 2009, p. 84-85.37

Gladiators and Caesars. The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome 2000, p. 40.


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3.1.A. Entries

3.1.A.1. Thraexs Helmet Subtype Pompeii H12

Location: France. Paris, Muse de Louvre.Inventory no.: 1108.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: with visor and crest: 38 cm; visor alone 23 cm; length: 40 cm; width: 33.4

cm; thickness of the gridded eye cover: 1.8-2.3 mm.

State of preservation: Good.

Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiators barracks).

Dating: Probably AD 50-75.

Description: Bronze helmet richly decorated, with a griffin head on the top of the crest and a

silver-plated Medusa head on the part of the cap protecting the head over the forehead. The

sides of the crest are decorated in detail with small overlapping feathers. Moreover on the

helmet sides there are two feather holders. The surface of the helmet is partly decorated with

tin embedded links and dents. The grill covering the upper part of the face and the shape of

the visor are typical for the 1st century AD. The helmet is decorated by embossing (relieves),

perforation and engraving (details).

Bibliography: Wahl, J. Gladiatorenhelm-Beschlge vom Limes. Germania, 55, 1977, p. 116,no. 2, pl. 20, 2 and pl. 23;LesGladiateurs. Muse archologique: ditions Lattes, 1987, p.122-123, no. 20; Schutz und Zier. Helme aus dem Antikenmuseum Berlin und Waffen anderer

Sammlungen, Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig. Basel: Antikenmuseum Basel

und Sammlung Ludwig, 1989, p. 96, no. 89.

Figs 3.1.A.1.1-2.Thraexs helmet subtype Pompeii H12 (after:http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/helmet-thracian-gladiator; last visit: 05. 06. 2012)
http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/helmet-thracian-gladiatorhttp://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/helmet-thracian-gladiator


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Fig. 3.1.A.1.3. Detail of the hinge

(photograph by the Author)

Fig. 3.1.A.1.4. Detail of the hinge cover

(photograph by the Author)

Fig.3.1.A.1.5. Detail of the silver plated Medusa head on the forehead (photograph by the Author)


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Fig. 3.1.A.1.6. Detail of the visor (photograph by the Author)

Fig. 3.1.A.1.6. Detail of the crest (photograph by the Author)


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3.1.A.2. Thraexs Helmet, Subtype Pompeii H7

Location: Italy. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.

Inventory no.: 5649.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height with visor and crest: 43.5 cm, visor only: 22 cm, crest: 11 cm; width: 37.5

cm. Inner length and width: 22 cm. Diameter of the grill eye-cover: 8.5 cm. Brim: width on

front: 6.4 cm, on back 8 cm. Thickness of the bronze plate: 0.95-1.18 mm, with rim: 2.97-4.23

mm. Weight 3400 g.



Dating: 1st century AD.

Description: This Thraexsbronze helmet is, in terms of design, an older version of subtypesPompeii H12 and H13. It has a flat brim and circular visor gratings which do not go through

the brim. These are fastened by hinges directly to the cheek pieces. Cheek pieces slide under

the range of the brim in the front part into the bulging holder. On the top of the crest there is a

griffins head. The forehead of helmet is decorated by a palm tree, while on the cheek piecesthere are discoid patterns. The helmet is decorated by embossing, perforation and engraving.

Bibliography: Fiorelli 1869, p. 16, no. 279; Bettinali Graeber 1988/1999, p. 115-119, no. 20;

Junkelmann, M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren. Mainz 2000, p.

165;Il gladiatore / The gladiator2008, p. 33.

Figs 3.1.A.2.1-2.Thraexs helmet type Pompeii H7 (after: Junkelmann M.Das Spiel mit derTodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)


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Figs 3.1.A.2.3. Enlarged view of the right side (after: La Regina2001)


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3.1.A.3. Thraexs Helmet, Subtype Pompeii H13

Location: Italy. Capua, Museo dei Gladiatori.


Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height with visor and crest: 45.5 cm, visor only: 22 cm; width: 44 cm; thickness

of the bronze plate: 1.2 mm, with rim: 3.4 mm. Weight 4000 g.



Dating: AD 50-75.

Description: Bronze helmet, richly decorated. In terms of design it is identical to subtype

H12. The crest of the helmet is simpler than type H12. On the top of the crest there is a

griffins head. A Medusa head is on the forehead, while on the sides there are dolphinsjumping in the waves, indicated all around the circumference of the helmet. The helmet is

decorated by embossing, perforation and engraving.

Bibliography: Fiorelli 1869, p. 16, no. 280; Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p. 120-124, no. 21;

La Regina 2001, p. 373.

Figs 3.1.A.3.1-2. Thraexs helmet type Pompeii H13 (after: Junkelmann M.Das Spielmit der TodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)


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Fig. 3.1.A.3.3. Enlarged view of the left side (after: La Regina 2002)


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3.2 Ocreae (Greaves)

The disadvantage of the small shield used by thraex and hoplomachus was compensated by

the pair of high ocreae. In the Roman army greaves were not very common: both in the Late

Republic and during the Imperial period, they were worn only by centuriones38.

All of the original finds ofocreae come from gladiatorial barracks in Pompeii. There

were found five pairs of long greaves, differing from each other in height and in the frequency

of decoration. The greaves were made from one piece of bronze sheet and were bordered with

a thin bronze strip covering the rough edge (Fig. 4a). They protect always only the front part

of the legs. There were pair of rings attached by two rivets on both sides (Fig. 4b): through

these rings passed leather straps, tied on the back of the leg.

38Junkelmann, , 2000, p. 73-76, Nossov 2009, p. 91-94.

Figs. 4a -c. (left) Detail of the bordered with thin bronze plate. (middle) Detail of the loop attached by

two rivets. (right) Detail of the projection for a kneecap. (photograph by the Author)


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The decoration ofocreae differs piece by piece. Some of them have no decoration39; on the

contrary, some are very richly decorated, mostly by stamping, engraving, bashing and

perforation40. All types of high graves have a projection for a the kneecap (pict Fig. 4c.).

Alike helmets, we do not know whether these richly decorated greaves were not only for

ceremonial armoury41, worn by gladiators only when entering the arena on parade (pompa) at

the opening of the games. For fighting simpler greaves were used. More than half of

discovered graves carry inscriptions, such as N.C.A., NER., NER. AVG., which are the

marks of the familiagladiatoria42. The inscription M.C.P. was probably the mark of a

crafter, because it was found on ten identical pieces of armour43. There are no inscriptions

made by the gladiators themselves on their equipment, unlike the military one, which was

often signed by the owners44. The issue of the construction and using of Thracian ocreae is

described in detail here below in Chapter 5.5.

39Entry 3.2.A.1.

40Entry 3.2.A.4.

41Chapter 6.

42In these cases, the inscriptions seem to indicate that the greaves had been made for the Imperial gladiatorial

school (specifically of Nero): Nossov 2009, p. 93.43Nossov 2009, p. 93-94.

44In some cases we can find the signatures of more users on a single piece.


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3.2.A.1. Thraexs/hoplomachuss greaves subtype Pompeii B1 and B2


Inventory no.: 5644, 5648.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: 52.8 cm; thickness of the bronze plate: 1.13-2.5 mm, with rim: 3.65 mm.

Weight 2200 g.



Dating: second quarter of the 1st century AD.

Description: Pair of bronze high greaves. As far as it is known, this is the only extant pair

without decoration. In the area of kneecap they are bulging. Above the knee, there are two

shallow drop-shaped bulges bordered by a vault line from engraved from the obverse of the

surface. Each greave is completely bordered by a thin bronze sheet. There are three pairs of

rings attached by two rivets on both sides, for the fastening to the leg with leather straps

passing through them. On the lower edge of the greave inv. no. 5648 there is the mark of the

Imperial workshop: NER(ONIS). AVG.(VSTI) (of Nero Augustus).

Bibliography: Fiorelli 1869, p. 20, nos 296-297, Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, 82 No. 2a-b.,

Junkelmann, M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p. 180

cat. B1 and B2; La Regina 2001, p. 386.

Figs 3.2.A.1.1-2. Thraexs/hoplomachuss greaves type Pompeii B1 andB2 (after: Junkelmann M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms

Gladiatoren 2000)


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Figs 3.2.A.1.3-4. Enlarged view (after: La Regina 2001)


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Inventory no.: 5645 and 5647.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: 55.5 cm; thickness of the bronze plate: 1.12-1.62 mm, with rim: 4.75-5.35

mm.


ProvenancePompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiators barracks).

Dating: Second quarter of the 1st century AD.

Description: Pair of high bronze greaves. In the term of design it is identical to types B1 and

B2. Thy are decorated with engraved ornamental patterns on the upper and lower edges. A

vault line is in the lower part decorated with short bashed. In the area of the knee the are two

characters. On the right greave (inv. no. 5647) is naked Neptune, depicted holding a trident in

his left hand and a small dolphin in his right hand. On the left greave (inv. no. 5645) there is

naked Jupiter, standing between two trees, holding a long sceptre in the left hand and a bundle

of bolts in the right hand.

Bibliography: Fiorelli 1869, p. 20, nos 299-300; Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p. 59-64, no.

9a-b; Junkelmann, M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000,

p. 180 cat. B3 and B4: La Regina 2001, p. 387;Il gladiatore / The gladiator2008, p. 37.

Fig. 3.2.A.2.1. Thraexs/hoplomachuss greaves type Pompeii B3 and B4 (after:http://www.utexas.edu/courses/introtogreece/gladiators/img13greaves.html;

last access: 1.7.2012)
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/introtogreece/gladiators/img13greaves.htmlhttp://www.utexas.edu/courses/introtogreece/gladiators/img13greaves.htmlhttp://www.utexas.edu/courses/introtogreece/gladiators/img13greaves.html


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Figs 3.2.A.2.2-3. Enlarged view (after: La Regina 2001)


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Location: France. Paris, Muse du Louvre.

Inventory no.: 1169 and 1170.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: 57.5 cm (the higher one); width: 21.5 cm.


Provenance: Pompeii, Quadriporticus of the Theatre (gladiatorsbarracks).


Description: Pair of bronze high greaves. In the term of design it is identical to types B3 and

B4. Differences can be seen in the decoration. On the left part of the upper third of eachgreave there is a male, bearded frontal head, with a high anastol over the forehead (Pan?),

inside a square frame. Opposite to it, there are two superimposed masks of a Silenus and a

Maenad in profile view to their right, with a thyrsus behind them. In the areas of kneecaps

there is a frontal head of Medusa, so-called beutyful tipe, with her eyes open and a pair ofwinglets in the hair over the forehead. On the upper part of the left greave (inv. no. 1169)

there is the hallmark AM, originally probably PPAM; in the centre of there upper part,

beneath the upper edge, there is the mark MC (probably MCP: see below); in the knee area

there is the mark NCA. On the right greave (inv. no. 1170), on the front side of the thigh there

is there the mark MCP; on the left there is NCA, on the right there is PPAM.

Bibliography: De Ridder 1915, p. 8, nos 1169 and 1170, pl. 67; Baratte 1987, p. 124-125, no.

23; Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p. 83-86, no.13 a-b.

Fig. 3.2.A.2.1. Thraexs/hoplomachuss greaves type Pompeii B5 and B6(after:

http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=20619&

langue=fr ; last visit: 27. 06. 2012)


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Fig. 3.2.A.2.2Detail of the vault line and

bearded head on inv. no. 1170 (photograph by

the Author)

Fig. 3.2.A.2.3. Detail of the vault line and

bearded head on inv. no. 1169 (photograph by

the Author)

Fig. 3.2.A.2.4. Detail of the Medusas head on thekneecap area of inv. no. 1169 (photograph by the

Author)


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Inventory no.: B9 5665, B10 5668.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: B9 Height: 55 cm; width: 20 cm; thickness of the bronze plate: 1.13 mm, with

rim: 4.85 mm. Weight 2200 g. B10 Height: 55 cm; width: 19 cm; thickness of the bronze

plate: 1.13 mm, with rim: 4.85 mm. Weight 2200 g.




Description: B9. On the upper part, there is garland made of laurel and oak leaves. In the

knee area there is a table with three Bacchic masks; leaning against the table there are a club

(on the left) and shepherd staff (on he right). Under these, on both sides of the greave, there is

a vegetal scroll. Under the knee, in the centre of the greave, there is a gabled line and, under

it, an eagle with widespread wings fighting against a serpent. On the lowest register there are

five Bacchic masks: Three of them lay on a basket with lid, known as cista mystica of

Bacchus; while on each side of this composition there is another Bacchich mask against a

neutral background. On the side rims of the greave there are three pairs of rings. Next to one

of the highest ring there is the mark NER, while on the upper part of the thigh there is a largehallmark MCP.

B10. The second greave is very similar to the previous, but it shows differences in decoration

and shape. In the upper part there are two laurel branches, with a decorative round shield

between their tops. On the knee there is a mask of young Bacchus on a cista mystica. Beneath,

there are the head of a Faunus on the left side, and the mask of a Satyr on the right side, both

on a cista mystica. Between each of the masks and the head of young Bacchus, there is a

thyrsus. Under the gabled line there is an eagle hunting a rabbit. Beneath there is an acanthus

scroll. On each side of the greave there are three pairs of rings. In the upper part of it there is a

large hallmark MCP (cf. B9).

It is not certain that greaves B9 and B10 belonged to the same pair, because of the differences

in their decoration, style and shape. Moreover, they do not share the same hallmarks,

differently from all the other greaves.

Bibliography: Quaranta 1831; Fiorelli 1869, p. 20, no. 301; Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999, p.

65-70, no. 10a, p. 71-75, no. 10b; La Rocca 2001, p. ***;Il gladiatore / The gladiator2008,

p. 37.


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Figs3.2.A.3.1-2. On the left, the greave inv. no. B9 5665 (front view); on the right, the greave

inv. no. B10 5668 B10 (right side view) (after: La Regina 2001)


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Inventory no.: 5666, 5667.

Material: Bronze.

Measures: Height: 54 cm; inner diameter: 90.8-128.8 cm; depth 14,8 cm. Thickness of the

bronze plate: 1.62 mm, with rim: 4.78 mm. Weight: respectively, 2300 and 2500 g.



Dating: Second quarter of the first century AD.

Description: Pair of richly decorated bronze graves. The decoration is identical on both

greaves: the only difference is that the mask of Silenus in the upper part and the stork in the

lower part are specularly inverted. In the upper part a mask of Silenus, lying on a cista

mystica, is depicted in profile; at each side there is thyrsus with long ribbons. Lower, in the

same register, there are two young Bacchus masks on a cista mystica (one on each side), inprifle towards the centre of the greave, and a tree beneath them. In the knee area there are two

crossed cornucopias. In the following register, beneath a richly decorated gabled line, there

are three embossed Bacchic masks on a panther skin. In the lowest register there is a stork (or

heron) with open wings, holding a snake in its beak. On the sides of each greave there are four

pairs of rings and on the upper edge there is the already seen hallmark MPC.

Bibliography: Caterion 1827; Fiorelli 1869, p. 21, no. 313-314, Bettinali-Graeber 1988/1999,

p. 76-81, no. 11a-b; La Regina 2001, p. 389.


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Fig. 3.2.A.4.1. View of the front side decoration of inv no. 5666 (on the left) and of the left side

decoration of inv. no. 5667 (on the right) (after: La Regina 2001)


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3.3 Manica(Arm-guard)

The manicais the part of the armour covering the fighters arm. It probably developed from

the Hellenistic boxing glove called caestus45. At first, it protected only a short part of the arm,

from the wrist to the elbow; later it was elongated up to the shoulder. We can find a few kinds

ofmanica on depictions: unfortunately original finds has not been preserved. It is because of

the organic material used for the making of most parts of the manica: usually made of quilted

cloth or leather. The fastening of the manica was by leather straps over the shoulder and

around the chest (Fig. 5a). Another possibility to put it on the arm can be seen on the funerary

relief of Lusius Storax46: broad cloth or leather thongs overlapped on the arm. A case apart are

the crossed thongs. Another option, used during the 1st and the 2nd century AD, were metal

manicae (scale or laminar). Laminar arm-guards was used for the first time by the army ofEmperor Trajan in the First and Second Dacian Wars (AD 101-102 and 105-106). These

laminar arm-guards should provide protection against the Dacian weapons called falx47.

According to the only preserved legionnaire manica, found in Britannia, we can guess the

function and construction of the segmented manica (Fig. 5b). From the 2nd century onwards,

the scale arm-guard became favored. It is depicted, e.g., in the fragmentary mosaic at Villa

Borghese48. The function and reconstruction of the manica are described here below in

Chapter 5.4.

45Nossov 2009, p. 90.

46

Entry 4.1.1.47The Dacianfalx existed in two sizes: one-handed and two-handed. The shorter variant was calledsica.

48Entry 4.2.5.

Fig. 5a. Systm ofmanica fastening byleather strap. (after: Wilson S. Gladiators

100 BCAD 200 Osprey 2001)

Fig. 5b. Remains of metal manica segents

from Newstead excavationin Britain (after:

Wilson S. Gladiators 100 BCAD 200Osprey 2001)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sica


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3.4 Weapons

It was quite common that in the Republican period war prisoners used their own weapons or

armours while entering the arena as gladiators49. Sica sword was, according to the opinion of

Roman people, the typical weapon for gladiator thraex. It is a single-handed dagger with a

curved blade. There are not so many preserved gladiatorial weapons, and no direct find of

gladiatorial sica. In the ludus50 the gladiators did not train with sharp weapons most of the

time, but instead of them wooden swords (rudes) were used. A training daggersica has been

found in the legionnaire camp in Oberaden in Northern Germany, dated to the 1st century BC

(Fig. 6c). Most of original finds of military sicae come from sites in Romania. The

information about the shape of the blade of the gladiatorial sica comes from mosaics and

grave reliefs. Until the first half of the 1st century AD the blade was evenly curved along itslength (Fig. 6a), while later types were with sharply angled blade (Fig. 6b). The wooden blade

from Oberaden is 30.5 cm long and its total length was 46.5 cm (Fig. 6c). Yet, in the same

period, iron-bladedsicae were much more longer: we estimate the length of their blades in 45

cm. The use of such curvature is described below in Chapter 5.6.

49

E.g., the samnis gladiator was typical by his armour.50Place where gladiators lived and trained.

Fig. 6a. Detail of the oil lamp decoratin thraexholdingsica

with evenly curved blade, Kln, Rmisch-GermanischesMuseum, (after:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/i
http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825


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3.5 Parmula(Shield)

According to the size, of their shields, gladiators felt into three groups, that is large-, middle-

large- and small-shielded51.

Thraex and hoplomachus belong to the group of small-shielded gladiators. The thraex

used a small quadrangular shield (parmula) measuring about 60 x 60 cm. Such shield had a

convex surface for providing a better protection. Because of the organic materials of which

these shields were made, none has survived. Nonetheless, there are iconographic sources, in

particular bronze statuettes, which inform us about them.

The exact construction of theparmula can be deduced from the way in which the large

shield (scutum) was constructied. On the contrary, some hoplomachus parmula has been

completely preserved because it was made of bronze. Its shape could be various as it is

discussed below in Chapter 5.7, but mostly it should have been suggestive of a miniature of

51Junkelmann 2000, p. 76 -81.

Fig. 6b. Bronze statue of the thraex holdning sharply

angledsica andparmula with horizontal grip,

Hannover , Kestner-Museum (after: Junkelmann M.

Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms

Gladiatoren 2000)

Fig. 6c. Reconstruction of wooden blade

from Oberaden (after Nossov, Konstantin.

Gladiator. Romes Bloody Spectacle

2009)


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the Greek shield aspis. Originals from excavations are of a type similar to those reproduced

on statuettes depicting hoplomachi (see above, Fig. 2), but also the hoplomachus is often

represented with a very convex shield, for example in the mosaic from the Roman villa at

Zliten52. Unfortunately, no similar exemplar has been preserved.

Finally, it is noteworthy to mention that there were admirers of particular shield

categories. The supporters of small shields were called parmularii, while the supporters of

large shields were called scutarii53. To the function and use of shields is paid attention in

Chapter 5.

4 . The Iconographic Sources

The iconographical sources are the most valuable sources of information about gladiators,

next after the original finds. Gladiatorial topic can be observed in roman art, mostly on

mosaics, stone reliefs, paintings and commonly used pottery, e.g terra sigillata54, oil lamps,

cups. Often are also found small bronze, bone or ivory statuettes which depict gladiators in

various positions winner in winning position and surrender in gesture with raised finger.Information about fight results can be seen on mosaics, reliefs and paintings. Letter V

indicated winner and was a shortcut for viciit. M meAnt missusreprieved gladiator. P

by word periitkilled orQ by word quanatozor Gracian thta which meAnt death.

There are also shortcuts ST. Mstansmissus, this meant ending of fight by tie and both

fighters left arena alive. Or M.P- missus periit, for reprieved gladiator, who finaly

succumbed to his injuries55 Extant engraved singns and paintings of gladiators on plasters of

Pompeyian houses have usualy nothing common with original armature of gladiators but it

shows the evident admiration of common inhabitans.

52Entry 4.2.1.

53Nossov 2009, p. 154, where one of the quoted sources is Marcus Aurelius,Meditations1.5.1: From my

governor, [I learned] to be neither of the green nor of the blue party at the games in the Circus, nor a partizan

either of the Parmularius or the Scutarius at the gladiators fights

(http://classics.mit.edu/Antoninus/meditations.1.one.html; last access: 7.6.2012).54General term for some of the fine red Ancient Roman pottery with glossy surface slips.

55Nossov 2009 p. 167.
http://classics.mit.edu/Antoninus/meditations.1.one.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_potteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_(ceramics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_(ceramics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_potteryhttp://classics.mit.edu/Antoninus/meditations.1.one.html


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4.1 Relieves

This expensive form of decoration is mostly connected directly with places of holding

gladiatorial fights or death. Extant are gravestones of gladiators built by bereaved after death.

Either by the co-fighters from ludus or by lanista himself in the case of eminent gladiator. But

mostly it was built by family and children. There was found the largest graveyard of

gladiators in Ephesus. Three gravestones and bones of 67 men in the age of 20 30 years

considered as gladiators were found. On the gravestones is engraved name of the dead fighter,

his portrayal and often dedication. Gladiators are allways depicted standing and fully armed,

against his adversary or alone. Often were depicted with palm spray as winners. In Thyateiry

(nowadays Turkey), young wife of fallen gladiator had built a gravestone, which says Amias

in memory to her beloved husband Araxios, who came from Daldis, also called Antalos.Araxios stays in figh position, protects himself with shieldparmula , has high ocrea and holds

sica with curved blade. Its dedicated that Araxios was fighting as a thraex. From Smyrna

comes gravestone ofthraex Satornilose who stands in winning position holding a palm spray.

The gravestones say: Familia in memory to Satornilos. Beside the figures, there were

depicted wreaths on the gravestones, as in the grave of thraex Danaos (Fig. 7). The number of

wreaths was eaqual to number of victories in the arena. Some epitaphs on the graves of

gladiators were same as on the soldiers gravestones. First is written name, than follows type

of weapon he fought with, his native land, number of undergone fights and age.

Fig. 7. Reconstruction of the Relief tombstone of the retired gladiator

Danaos with wreaths on the side. (after: Wilson S. Gladiators 100 BCAD 200 Osprey 2001)


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The relief found in Pompei56, nowadays placed in Muzeo archeologico Nazionale, Neapoli,

shows the course ofvenatio a munus. In the upper part of relief there is pompa depicted. Iin

the middle line there are gladiatorial fights under way, where in the right side can be

recognized pairhoplomachusmurmillo. In the lower part there is venation depicted. On the

redrawn relief from 19th century from Pompeii which was destroyed are gladiatorial fights

depicted. Thraex is in the upper line depicted twice in pair with murmillo, the lower line is

formed only by pairs murmillothraex, thraexmurmillo. Also, the relief from 2nd quarter of

1st century AD is preserved. It comes from clerk Lusius Storaxe57. On the right side there is

well identifiable pair thraexmurmillo in the upper part. In the lower part there are pairs

thraex murmillo, murmillo thraex, murmillo hoplomachus and thraex murmillo

described from left.

56Entry 4.1.2.

57Entry 4.1.1.


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4.1. Relieves

4.1.1. Funerary relief of Lusius Storax

Location: Italy. Chieti, Museo Archeologico Nazionale dAbruzzo.

Inventory nr.: unknown.

Material: Limestone.

Measures: pediment 60 x 280 cm; height of the frieze panels: 60 cm .


Provenance: Teate (Chieti).

Dating: AD 20-40 (Kleiner); principate of Claudius (41-54: Maderna).

Description: The relief with gladiatorial munera belongs to the funerary monument of a

freedman, Gaius Lusius Storax, who lived in ancient Teate (today Chieti) where he wassevir

Augustalis (i.e., member of a college of priests of the Imperial cult). The monument was

designed in the fashion of a temple: with a pediment. In the pediment, we can see Lusius

Storax in toga, seated on asellacurulis, in the centre of the composition. Around him there is

a crowd of men and at the sides tibicines (on the left) and cornicines (on the right). All the

people are watching the gladiatorial munera clearly offered by Lusius Storax himself, partly

represented on the pediment itself: here, from left to right, there are two equites, a myrmillo-

hoplomachus pair (behind them there are two umpires) and a thraex-myrmillo pair. The relief

of the frieze (from left to right) shows the following pairs: thraex-myrmillo, myrmillo-thraex,

myrmillo-hoplomachus and thraex-myrmillo.

Bibliography: Maderna, C. Die Bildhauerkunst whrend der Regierungszeit des Nero (54-68n. Chr.) 2010, I, p. 132, II, fig. 204a-b; Kleiner F.S.A History of Roman Art, Enhanced

Edition,

Figs. 4.1.1.1. Left and right part from Lusius Storaxs funerary relief showing the performance of

munera (afterhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/risotto-al-caviale/3442301554/andhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/risotto-al-caviale/3442301242; last visit: 3.6.2012)
http://www.flickr.com/photos/risotto-al-caviale/3442301554/http://www.flickr.com/photos/risotto-al-caviale/3442301242http://www.flickr.com/photos/risotto-al-caviale/3442301242http://www.flickr.com/photos/risotto-al-caviale/3442301554/


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4.1.2. Relief from Pompeii with munusand venatio



Material: Marble of Luni

Measures: 1.50 x 4.23 m.

State of preservation: Two diagonal fractures; little missing area in the centre of the lowest

register.

Provenance: Pompeii, necropolis before Porta Stabia.

Dating: AD 20-50.

Description: This relief, organized in three registers of different height, originally decoratedthe faade of a funerary monument. It is very important because it consists of a cyclicnarration, in which the singles episodes mark also under the chronological point of view the

timetable of an editio (the game day), offered by a magistrate. The narration begins in theupper register, with a procession (pompa), marching from left to right: the parade is opened

by two lictors, followed by three tibicines (players of tuba) and by a ferculum, on whichthere are two small figures, possibly representing the fabri who constructed the armatures for

the gladiators (Junkelmann 2000). Then, the harenarii follow, carrying materials needed for

the games, such as the table with the programme of the games and the palm branch as prize

for the winner. In the pompa we can detect a character frontally depicted, cladded in a toga,

who is the patron of the funerary monument and the editorof the munera. The gladiatorial

fights are represented in the central register: a series of pairs of gladiators, umpires and

assistants are depicted. In detail: twoprovocatores, two groups each consisting of three men

(perhaps,paegniarii and their assistants); a hoplomachus and a murmillo on the right. Bottom

row, venatores fighting with animals, as well as three bestiarii at the moment of letting beasts

out onto the arena.

Bibliography:See Mau, A.Pompeii: Its Life and Art. Translated by F.W.Kelsey. New York:

Macmillan, 1907, p. 431, fig. 246; La Regina 2001, p. 359, no. 74; Cooley S. and M.G.L.

Pompeii: A Sourcebook. London:Routledge, 2004 p. 140.

Fig. 10. Relief from Pompeii (after Nossov, Konstantin. Gladiator. Romes Bloody

Spectacle 2009)


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4.1.3. Sketch of a lost relief from Pompeii

Location: /.

Inventory no.: /.

Material: /

Measures: /

State of preservation: /.

Provenance: After a relief found at Pompeii.

Dating: AD 20-50.

Description: A sketch realized in the 19th century from a destroyed relief in Pompeii showing

gladiatorial combats. From left to right, there are in the upper row: two equites, a myrmillo-thraex pair, a hoplomachus-myrmillo pair, two essedarii, two retiarii and a myrmillo-thraex

pair. The lower row comprises a myrmillo-thraex pair and a thraex-myrmillo pair as well as

some enlarged details. Helmets and foot covers are depicted. Thraexs parmula shows avertical handgrip.

Bibliography: Mazois, F.Les Ruines de Pompei:Premiere Partie. Paris: Atlas, 1824, p. 47-

48; Smith, W.A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London, 1875, p. 1186-1188.

Fig. 4.1.3 Tracing of the Pompeii destroyed relief from 19th century (after Nossov, Konstantin.

Gladiator. Romes Bloody Spectacle 2009)


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4.2 Mosaic

Mosaics from the Antiquity are one of the most permanent form of decorative art which was

preserved. This expensive style of decoration was very well-liked by Romans who decorated

with it their private vilas or public rooms. The fragmen fo mosaic from Zliten in Libye58 dated

around 200 AD depicts the cours of munus. On its right side there is bust of editor depicted,

than follow musicians and a pair of fighting equites. Other fighting gladiators are also

depicted, with easily recognizable armature types. Thraex is depicted twice, fighting with

murmillo and surrending with raised finger59. On mosaics from Augst by Basel60 from 2nd

century placed in Augst, Rmermuseum is five fighting scenes depicted. Pairng of gladiators

is very well traceable on this mosaic. One of the scenes is dedicated to pair thraexmurmillo.

There is also depiction of pair thraexmurmillo on one part of mosaic from half of the 1st

century from Bad Kreuznach61 placed in Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier. On this view

there is Thraex hit by murmillos shield to his helmet which confirms the theory of active

using of shield in fight62. On the fragment of mosaic from Verona 63 around AD 200 there is

thraex kneeling over downed murmillo and standing arbiter64. Three fragments of mosaic

from famous Villa Borghese from the beginning of 4 th century AD represent gladiatorial

combats between retiarii andsecutores and venation. Thraex is not represented here but it is

clearly visible the using of scalemaled manicae and its attaching65. Mosaics from 2nd century

AD are less detailed and it is more difficult to follow details of gladiatorial armature opposite

to mosaics from the end of 3rd and 4th century AD. It is likelihood that authors of mosaics

created their work with a certain amount of own artistic invention and some technical details

were not crucial for creating work. In spite of that mosaics in combination with written

sources and original finds of equipment are very valuable preserved source of information.

58Entry 4.2.1.

59This gesture mean, the fighting person is unable to continue in fight because of his injury or exhaustion. Than

the crowd could decide about his next destiny.60

Entry 4.2.2.61

Entry 4.2.3.62

Chapter 4.4.63

Entry 4.2.4.64

There were two arbiterssumma rudis and his assistantsecunda rudis watching th fight. Their main task wasobserve the fight rulez dictate (Nossov 2009 str. 159)65

Chapter 2.3


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4.2. Mosaics

4.2.1. Mosaic from Zliten

Location: Lybia. Tripoli, The Archaeological Museum of Tripoli.

Inventory nr.: not found.

Measures: 5.73 3.97 m.

State of preservation: Complete, with some lacunae, obliterating especially one of the

gladiatorial frieze, and some areas of the central square.

Provenance: Roman villa at Dar Buk Ammera.

Dating: AD 200.

Description: Fragment of a large mosaic, originally decorating a triclinium, with scenes of

games in the amphitheatre. The mosaic consists of a set of sixteen square fields decorated

with geometric designs in opus sectile or representations of several kinds of fish in opus

vermiculatum,, formin a square in the centre of the pavement. Each side of the edge is

decorated with pictures of gladiatorial contests. Here, only two details have been selected.

Top (from left to right): Bust of an editor, musicians (with the rare representation of a

hydraulis, water-organ), a stretcher to take away the dead or wounded, and an umpireholding one of the equites by the hand, expecting a verdict. Bottom (from left to right):

combat between a retiarius and a secutor, a thraex-myrmillo pair and a hoplomachus-

myrmillopair (the myrmillo is holding up his finger and the umpire is stopping the fight). The

last gladiator on the right is aprovocator.

Bibliography: Kondoleon, Christine,Domestic and divine: Roman mosaics in the House of

Dionysos, New York: Cornell University 1995, p. 73-74; Dunbabin, Katherine M.D. Mosaics

of the Greek and Roman world (4th edition). New York: Cambridge University 1999, p. 119-

120.

Fig. 4.2.1.1. Details of the mosaic from Zliten showing the course of thepompa and a venatio(after: Junkelmann M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)


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4.2.2. Mosaic fragment from Augst

Location: Switzerland. Augst, Rmermuseum,.


Measures: not found

State of preservation:Good.

Provenance:Augusta Raurica (Augst).

Dating: AD 200.

Description: This square detail of the mosaic is one of the five, which depict a gladiatorspairing. There is a myrmillo prepared for the fight and a thraex taking hisparmula shield from

the ground.

Bibliography: Katherine M.,Dunbabin D. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world.New York:

Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 280-282; Junkelmann, M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo

kmpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p. 96- 98.

Fig. 4.2.2.1. Mosaic detail from Augst showing gladiatorial fight (after: Junkelmann M.Das Spiel

mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)


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4.2.3. Detail of a Mosaic from Bad Kreuznach

Location: Germany. Bad Kreuznach, Rmerhalle.


Measures: The whole mosaic: 58m2.


Provenance: Remains of a Roman villa, Bad Kreuznach.

Dating: 2nd century AD.

Description: The extensively preserved mosaic depicts thirteen different combats in the

Roman amphitheatre, inside frames of different shapes. This fragment shows the fighting

between a thraex and a myrmillo. The myrmillo hits the thraex on the helmet with his shield

scutum.

Bibliography: Cppers H.Die Rmer in Rheinland-Pfalz, Hamburg:Neyses, 2005, p. 321-323; Hornung S.Luxus auf dem LandeDie rmische Palastvilla von Bad Kreuznach. Bad

Kreuznach: publishers, 2008.

Fig. 4.2.3.1. Detail of acmosaic from Bad Kreuznach (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der

TodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)


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4.2.4. Mosaic fragment from Verona

Location: Italy. Verona, Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano.


Measures: not found

State of preservation: fragmentary.

Provenance: Roman villa at Negrar, Verona.

Dating: Late 2nd or early 3rd century AD.

Description: A thraex is kneeling close to a dead or badly wounded myrmillo. An umpire is

stopping the fight. In the right bottom corner there is a cart for a body. Thraexsparmula, also

on the ground, shows a horizontal handgrip.

Bibliography: Junkelmann, M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms Gladiatoren,

Mainz 2000, p. 106-107.

Fig. 4.2.4.1. Fragment of mosaic from Verona (after: Junkelmann M.Das Spiel mit der Todt

So kmpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)


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4.2.5. Gladiator mosaic in Galleria Borghese

Location: Italy. Rome, Galleria Borghese. Embedded in the floor of the Salone.

Inventory nr.: without inventory number.

Measures: The five larger sections: 2.16/2.25 x 5.39/5.782 m; the two smaller sections: 54 x

86 cm.

State of preservation: recomposed in seven sections (five larger; two very small) from many

small square panel detached from their original setting.

Provenance: Borghese estate at Torrenova, on the via Casilina. Discovered and brought to

light in 1834

Dating:First half of the 4th century AD.

Description: The most famous gladiatorial mosaic from the late Imperial period, decorated, in

the shape of a continuous frieze, the cryptoporticus of an Imperial villa. Of the seven sections

now in the Galleria Borghese, two depicts venationes, four scenes ofmunera and one scene

both ofmunera and venatio.

The gladiatorial combats are between retiarii and secutores; moreover there are scenes of

venatio. According to the inscriptions all the duels ended with the death of the loser: in fact,

the Greek letter (= first letter of = death) characterizes the dead. The depictedgladiators use a scale manica, typical for this late period.

Bibliography: Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world NewYork: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 53-73; Junkelmann, M.Das Spiel mit der Todt

So kmpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p.144145; Moreno, P., Viacava, A.I marmiantichi della galleria Borghese. La collezione archeologica di Camillo e Francesco Borghese.

Roma: De Luca, 2003, pp. 136-138 (with further literature).


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Figs 4.1.5.1-2. Three fragments of the mosaic from Villanova in the Galleria Borghese,

representing a venatio and gladiatorial combats between retiarii andsecutores (after: Junkelmann

M.Das S iel mit der TodtSo km ten Roms Gladiatoren 2000


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4.4 Decorative items

The whole decorative industry sector dealed with gladiatorial theme. This support numerous

finds of commonly used staffs with gladiators and their fights topic. In Rmisch-

Germanisches Muzeum v Koln is placed collection of preserved oil lamps with gladiator

depiction. Some of them are decorated with thraex himslef (Figs. 8a-c). Other show thraex in

pair with murmillo (Figs. 9a-b) and hoplomachus (Fig. 6a). Two lamps from the National

Museum in Berlin show two thraex (Fig. 10). Another group of decorative items constituted

by small gladiator statuetes of various type cast from bronze (Figs. 11a-b) or in more rare

occasions from ivory. It is certain that gladitorial theme arous enormous interest of common

citizens. Especially in the day of Games a bussines with decorative items and souveniers with

gladaitorial motive flourished. There were countless traders around amphitheatres sellingmedalions and statuettes with popular gladiators, ceramic with fighting motives, weapons,

armatures and other various things of common use gladiatorial theme.

Figs. 8a-c. Detail of the three oil lamps with thraexgladiator, , Kln, Rmisch-GermanischesMuseum (after: http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-

72157623148558825 last visit: 27. 06. 2012)
http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825


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Figs. 9a-b. Detail of the two oil lamps depicting fight between thraex and murmillo, ,

Kln, Rmisch- Germanisches Museum (after:http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-

72157623148558825 last visit: 27. 06. 2012)

Fig. 10 Two thraex , Berlin, Staatliche MuseenAntikensammlung(after: Junkelmann M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften Roms

Gladiatoren 2000)

Fig. 11a. Bronze statue ofthraex prepared to

fight..Paris, Bibliothque Nationale (after:Junkelmann M.Das Spiel mit der TodtSo

kmpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

Fig. 11b.Bronze statue ofthraex in

surrender gesture, Palencia, Museo

Arqueologico (after: Junkelmann M.

Das Spiel mit der TodtSo kmpften

Roms Gladiatoren 2000)
http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.smb.museum/http://www.smb.museum/http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set-72157623148558825


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5. The elements of the armature in the light of reenactment

5.1. Reenactment: an experimental approach

Reenactment has a strong tradition in Bohemia and thanks to high-quality crafters of historicalreplics there are some world-class projects. The term reenactment includes general

revitalization of history. But quality degrees of such operation can be various.

At the lowest level there is a merely visual reconstruction, which creates only images

of a certain period without putting any emphasis on historical or archaeological sources and

on the used materials. This way, nonetheless, creates the illusion of historical authenticity but

mostly without any connection to the reality of reconstructed age. This is a very popular way

of delivering history in film industry nowadays. It brings a great number of historical epics

which purpose is only to deliver a periods image without any effort to create the true image

of history.

At the opposite end of the range, there is professional reenactment66, which has the

purpose to attain the most faithful reconstruction of a certain period, by a deep study of the

sources and replying the techniques of that period. The most similar approach to antiquity is

experimental archeology. Sometimes, yet, also professional reenactment has to face

constructing compromises, especially because of the lack of information about techniques and

processing of the selected period. Reenactment is only not focused on creating the picture of

history but also should answer the questions about the functions and qualities of the

reconstructed objects, which nowadays are only hypothetical. Differently from experimental

archaeology, the true function of the object has the second place in reenactment. For example,

archaeology will primarily examine the function of a weapon and its effect in the time it was

originally created and in certain situations. Reenactment creates a credible picture of a certain

period67 in which is not necessary to own an actually sharp weapon for its active, multiple

use.

The craftsman who reconstructed all the parts of the bronze gladiatorial equipment I am

presenting here manica, ocrea,galeais mr. Martin Junek, who belongs to the top-class of

66Professional reenactment is not an official term: in itself, it does not ensure the desired quality.

67For this type of reconstruction is not necessary to make a really sharp weapon. A blunt blade is better for

multiple use.


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armours and plattner articles craftsmen in Czech Reublic, and and his fame, among collectors

and producers of events, is worldwide. On his great strength, besides other things, depends his

capability of bronze manufacturing, which at such degree is very rare.

Due to the factory processing of bronze68, it is difficult to assess the properties of the

metal when heated, despite the supplier given values. The biggest influence has ratio of

copper and tin. For the reconstructions presented here tin bronze69 was used, a specifical alloy

with a content of ca. 8 % of tin at most, which can be processed by cold-working 70. The

firmness71 of the cold-worked bronze slowly decreases by heating at 300 C. A higher

softness is reached by annealing at 650 to 700 C. In the practice, this means that the metal

plate must be annealed in forge: its temperature is controlled by the colour of the heated

material (Fig 12a). When the metal is soft enough, there is only a short time for shaping72

(Fig. 12b). The complexity and expensiveness of bronze manufacturing multiplies the

difficulties in comparison with iron or brass manufacturing, which is commonly used as a

cheaper substitute. The qualities of bronze objects are very different when compared with

similar items made with substitute materials.

68The tin bronze sheet, in this case.

69Tin bronze contains at most 20 % of tin, and the total amount of copper and tin must be at least 99 % in

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