The Jargon and Terminology of Terrorism Selected Examples ... · 1. INTRODUCTION The structure of...

Západočeská univerzita v Plzni

Fakulta filozofická

Bakalá řská práce

The Jargon and Terminology of Terrorism

Selected Examples from U.S. Media

Marcela Kalounerová

Plzeň 2015

Západočeská univerzita v Plzni

Fakulta filozofická

Katedra anglického jazyka a literatury

Studijní program Filologie

Studijní obor Cizí jazyky pro komer ční praxi

Kombinace angli čtina – francouzština

Bakalá řská práce

The Jargon and Terminology of Terrorism

Selected Examples from U.S. Media

Marcela Kalounerová

Vedoucí práce:

David Eugene Franklin, M.A.

Katedra anglického jazyka a literatury

Fakulta filozofická Západočeské univerzity v Plzni

Plzeň 2015

Prohlašuji, že jsem práci zpracoval(a) samostatně a použil(a) jen uvedených pramenů a literatury.

Plzeň, duben 2015 ………………………

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 6

2. TERRORISM ...................................................................................... 8

2.1. What is terrorism? ...................................................................... 8

2.2. origin of the word terrorism ......................................................... 9

2.3. Foreign Terrorist Organizations ................................................ 10

2.4. BOKO HARAM ......................................................................... 12

2.5. HAMAS ..................................................................................... 13

2.6. BESLAN SCHOOL HOSTAGE CRISIS ................................... 14

2.7. Charlie Hebdo attack ................................................................ 16

2.8. Journalistic's means of softening .............................................. 18

2.8.1. DOUBLESPEAK ................................................................. 18

2.8.2. EUPHEMISMS ................................................................... 18

2.8.3. JARGON............................................................................. 19

2.8.4. GOBBLEDYGOOK ............................................................. 19

2.8.5. BUREAUCRATESE ........................................................... 19

2.8.6. INFLATED LANGUAGE ..................................................... 20

3. EUPHEMISMS AND DOUBLESPEAK ............................................. 21

4. CONCLUSION .................................................................................. 38

5. RESUMÉ .......................................................................................... 40

6. ABSTRAKT ....................................................................................... 41

7. BLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 42

8. ENDNOTES ...................................................................................... 43

1. INTRODUCTION

The structure of this thesis is devided, beside the introduction and

conclusion, into two main chapters. The first chapter represents the

theoretical part of this thesis which focus on terrorism in general. It

explains what is terrorism, give a brief information about foreign terrorist

organisations, especially about Boko Haram and Hamas and it describes

terrorist attacks on Charlie Hebdo and Beslan school. It also provides

informations about linguistics tools, such as doublespeak and

euphemism, because these two methods are used almost everytime by

journalists and politicians in media. And it also informs about therms

related to doublespeak, like: jargon, gobbledygook and bureaucratese.

The second chapter is the practical part and it's goal is to find in a context

various titles given to terrorists or terrorist attacks, primarily in articles

concerning Beslam school hostage crisis and Chrlie Hebdo attack or

terrorist organisation like Boko Haram and Hamas, and explain their

meaning. That is the reason why it is important to understand the term

terrorism and be privy to the described attacks. Then I focuse on

doublespeak and euphemisms, that create inseparable part of articles

about terrorism. I state them in extracts of newspapers articles and

mention their meaning and origin. Sometimes for bigger accuracy I quote

the dictionary definition. And in the last part of the second chapter are

newspapers extracts with the frequent terminology concerning panic,

killing, violence and others.

Since the terrorism is here as long as civilisation, there is more than 200

definition of this act. But yet there is no unified definition. However,

usually they are not so differen. To explain the word terrorism this thesis

provides the most common definitions. For imagination there is also a list

of designated terrorist organisations. The stress is put on Boko Haram

and Hamas, because these two terrorist organisations take a big part of

the practical part. Then there is a description of Beslan school hostage

The main sources for the first part of this thesis was book Criminologists

on Terrorism and Homeland Securtity from authors Brian Forst, Jack R.

Greene and James P. Lynch and a book Terrorism and Communication

from Jonathan Matusitz. For my thesis I also used other books (viz

bibliography), internet sources and videos.

The second part was created especially with the aid of online newspaper

articles (The New York Times, The Los Angeles Times,..) and with online

dictionaries like Dictionary.com, Thefreedictionary.com, etc.

2. TERRORISM

In this chapter, I would like to introduce the act of terrorism. To do it, I

chosed the most known definitions of terrorism, which include also the

definition of FBI an the Department of Defense. Then I will briefly

comment of the history of word terrorism and on terrorist organisations,

which will be supplemented by the list of terrorist groups. The emphasis

will be put on Boko Haram and Hamas. Next step will be describing of

Beslan school hostage crisis and attack on Charlie Hebdo. And in the end

of this chapter I will describe some methods that are used for softening

expressions.

2.1. WHAT IS TERRORISM?

There are many definitions of terrorism, according the studies more than

200,1 therefore it is diffucult to define it. One of the oldest definitions is a

definition of Thornton: "Terrorism is a symbolic action designated to

influence political behavior by extranormal means entailing the use or

threat of violence."2 Cooper describes terrorism as "the intentional

generation of massive fear by human beings for the purpose of securing

or maintaining control over other human beings."3 Brian Jenkins of the

RAND Corporation posed one of the most frequently used definition: "the

use or threatened use of force designed to bring about political

change."4Another one of the most often used definition is a definition of

the FBI from 1986 "the unlawful use of force or violence against persons

or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population,

or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives."5

According to the Department of Defense terrorism is "the unlawful use –

or threatened use of – force or violence against individuals or property to

coerce or intimidate governments or societies, often to achieve political,

religious, or ideological objectives."6 Sometimes is terrorism described as

well planed and organized act, however terrorists ordinarily participate in

random and impulsive acts.7

Because there is no unified definition of terrorism, sometimes we are not

able to recognize whether the attack was an act of terrorists or not. And

"even when terrorists commit acts that fit the definition, local police

agencies may classify the act as criminal rather than terroristic."8 It is what

we can see in newspapers and other media, how the journalists are

avoiding the therms terrorism and terrorist and replacing it by

euphemisms. And it is what I am focusing on in the theoretical part.

Terrorism can have form of: threat or hoax, arson, sabotage, bombing,

kidnapping, hostage taking, hijack-seizure, rais or ambush, assassination,

weapons of mass destruction (wmd).9

There are fifteen causes why terrorism exists: religion, oppression,

historical grievances, violations of international law, relative deprivation,

hatred toward the global economic hegemony, financial gain, racism, guilt

by association, supporting sympathizers, mortality salience, narcissism,

sensation-seeking, failure of conventional channels of expression,

communication and publicity. The list is based on extensive examination

of journal articles and books on terrorism written by experts on

terrorism.10

2.2. ORIGIN OF THE WORD TERRORISM

The word terrorism coined during the French Revolution´s Reign of Terror

(1793-1794), which was a campaign of large-scale violence by the French

state, where were killed between 16,000 and 40,000 people in that year,

consists from the Latin terre, which means "frighten" or "tremble" and

from the French suffix isme, which refers to "to practice". So together it

forms "practicing the trembling".11 The word terrorism is a pejorative term,

it is full of derogatory and negative meanings.12

The word terror, old over 2,100 years, signifies fear, panic and anxiety

(synonyms for trembling and frightening).13 But the act of terrorism

existed long before the word itself. Terrorism has been there from the

beginning of civilization. "Moses used terrorism against the Pharaoh of

Egypt to free the Israelites."14

2.3. FOREIGN TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS

The Secretary of State designates Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs)

in accordance with section 219 of the Immigration and Nationality Act

(INA). The legal criteria for designation under this section are:

1. It must be a foreign organization.

2. The organization must engage in terrorist activity, as defined in section 212 (a)(3)(B) of the INA (8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(3)(B)), or terrorism, as defined in section 140(d)(2) of the Foreign Relations Authorization Act, Fiscal Years 1988 and 1989 (22 U.S.C. § 2656f(d)(2)), or retain the capability and intent to engage in terrorist activity or terrorism.

3. The organization’s terrorist activity or terrorism must threaten the security of U.S. nationals or the national security (national defense, foreign relations, or the economic interests) of the United States.15

Designation of FTOs plays a crucial role in the fight against terrorism.

Below is a list of U.S. Government Designated Foreign Terrorist

Organizations:

Abdallah Azzam Brigades (AAB) Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade (AAMB) Ansar al-Dine (AAD) Ansar al-Islam (AAI) Army of Islam (AOI) Asbat al-Ansar (AAA) Aum Shinrikyo (AUM) Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) Boko Haram (BH) Communist Party of Philippines/New People’s Army (CPP/NPA)

Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA) Gama’a al-Islamiyya (IG) Hamas Haqqani Network (HQN) Harakat ul-Jihad-i-Islami (HUJI) Harakat ul-Jihad-i-Islami/Bangladesh (HUJI-B) Harakat ul-Mujahideen (HUM) Hizballah Indian Mujahedeen (IM) Islamic Jihad Union (IJU) Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) Jama’atu Ansarul Muslimina Fi Biladis-Sudan (Ansaru) Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) Jemaah Ansharut Tauhid (JAT) Jemaah Islamiya (JI) Jundallah Kahane Chai Kata’ib Hizballah (KH) Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) Lashkar e-Tayyiba Lashkar i Jhangvi (LJ) Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) Al-Mulathamun Battalion (AMB) National Liberation Army (ELN) Palestine Islamic Jihad – Shaqaqi Faction (PIJ) Palestine Liberation Front – Abu Abbas Faction (PLF) Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC) Al-Qa’ida (AQ) Al-Qa’ida in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) Al-Qa’ida in Iraq (AQI) Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) Real IRA (RIRA) Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N) Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party/Front (DHKP/C) Revolutionary Struggle (RS) Al-Shabaab (AS) Shining Path (SL) Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan (TTP) United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC)16

2.4. BOKO HARAM

Boko Haram, officially Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati wal-Jihad which

means “People Committed to the Propagation of the Prophet’s Teachings

and Jihad” is a Nigerian based terrorist group. Boko Haram, wich means

'Western education is sin' or 'Western Civilisation is forbidden,' was

founded in 2002 by Mohammed Yusuf, an Islamist cleric, in response to

Nigeria's democratic transition, nationalism and Western influence. In

2009, was Yusuf killed and replaced by Abubakar Shekau who is a

current leader.17

Boko Haram pledges its allegiance to Al-Qaeda and has links to Al-

Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb. The main spokesperson of Boko Haram

said, "…al-Qaeda are our elder brothers… our leader traveled to Saudi

Arabia and met alQaeda there. We enjoy financial and technical support

from them. Anything we want from them, we ask. "18 Among another

funding belong ransom kidnappings, bank robberies, sale of goods,

extracting the profits of supportive businesses, child beggars which are

also used as spies for the organisation, extorting local traders and cross-

border smuggling of arms and cash, trafficking narcotics and receiving

funding from wealthy members and supportive benefactors.19 Their

objective is to create an Islamic state in Nigeria. Up to now they control

much of north-eastern Nigeria, 30,000 km2, which is the size of Belgium.20

In November 2013, Boko Haram was designated by the U.S. State

Departement as a Foreign Terrorist Organization.21, 22

Members of Boko Haram are often disaffected youths, unemployed

graduates and members of Almajiris which are homeless youth

supposedly under religious guidance and their number is estimated

around 9,000 but the exact number is unknown.23

Goodluck Jonathan, the Nigerian President, said that in the violent Boko

Haram campaign against the Nigerian state over 13,000 people have

been killed and hundreds of persons kidnapped.24 In 2013, they killed

dozens of boys in a series of school attacks and kidnapped girls and

women in order to kaping them, making them their wives or sell them as a

slaves. It was kidnapping of 276 school girls from Chibok in April 2014

what raised public awarness of Boko Haram.25 Between 3 January and 7

January 2015, Boko Haram executed on of their deadlies attack, where

they massacred about 2,000 people in the Nigerian town of Baga. Bodies

were strewed all over the town.26

2.5. HAMAS

Hamas is an acronym for Harakat al-Muqawima al-Islamiyya and it is a

movement of Islamist resistance in Gaza and the West Bank. Initially it

was a charitable or teaching organisation. It was founded on December

16, 1987 by Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, a Palestinian cleric. Yassin was

arresten in May 1989 and received a life sentence. Nevertheless he was

released in 1997 in exchange for two Mossad agents. He took up the

control of Hamas again and on Octobrer 8, 1997 was Hamas designated

as a Foreign Terrorist Organization by the US.27,28 The United Kingdom,

Australia, Canada, Japan,29 Egypt30 also labeled Hamas as a Terrorist

Organization. It was also designated as a Foreign Terrorist Organization

by the EU, but in 2014, Hamas was removed from EU list of terrorist

groups. According to the European Union´s second highest court it is a

technical move, Hamas was put on the EU blacklist in 2003 on the base

of medias and informations from USA and Izrael which is not sufficient,

because it was not examined and confirmed by authorities. However EU

still consider Hamas as a terrorist organisation.31,32 It is also a separatis

group, because it advocates Palestinian autonomy from Israeli control.33

Hamas has strong financial backing, they receive about several tens of

millions dollars per year from their sources in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf

State. It includes several million dollars support from Iran. They also

simphone endosments from apparent charities or profitable economic

projects.34

Hamas method of attack is suicide car bombings and individual suicide

attacks,35 but also kidnapping, knife attacks, rocket attacks and mortars.36

"Their goal is to raise a flag of Allah over every inch of Palestine," which

is also Israel, and that means they want to destroy it.37 Israel is

permanently under attack, there has been 25218 rockets fired into Israel

since 2001. And on Israelhasbeenrocketfree.com you can see how long

Israel has been rocket free. There is a real clock timer which

automatically resets when Hamas fires a rocket toward Israel.38

In the video after the speech of Hamas Leader Khaled Mash'al, they say:

"Death to Israel. Death to America." And Ismail Haniya, the Prime

Minister of Hamas, says: "Oh Americans, Allah will punish you. The time

has come for Allah to declare war on you, oh usurers!"39

2.6. BESLAN SCHOOL HOSTAGE CRISIS

On September 1, 2004, a school in the southern Russian town of Beslan

was attacked by approximately 32 armed men and women who belonged

to a Chechen liberation group led by Shamil Basayev. Basayev was also

responsible for the takeover of a Moscow theatre in 2002 where died

about 130 hostages, in May 2004 for the assassination of the pro-

Moscow president of Chechnya, Akhmad Kadyrov and for other acts of

terrorism and murder.40 They took hostage over 1,120 children and

adults, who had gathered to celebrate the opening day of the new school

year.41

The second day, the perpetrators refused hostages water and trips to the

bathroom. Twenty-six nursing women and their infants were released, but

women had to leave their other children inside the school. The second

day was also presented following demands to the Russian forces:

Vladimir Putin, it wasn't you who started this war. But you can finish it if you

have enough courage and determination of de Gaulle. We offer you a

sensible peace based on mutual benefit by the principle independence in

exchange for security. In case of troops withdrawal and acknowledgement of

independence of Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, we are obliged not to make

any political, military or economic treaties with anyone against Russia, not to

accommodate foreign military bases on our territory even temporarily, not to

support and not to finance groups or organizations carrying out a military

struggle against RF, to be present in the united rouble zone, to enter CIS.

Besides, we can sign a treaty even though a neutral state status is more

acceptable to us. We can also guarantee a renunciation of armed struggle

against RF by all Muslims of Russia for at least 10 to 15 years under condition

of freedom of faith. We are not related to the apartment bombings in Moscow

and Volgodonsk, but we can take responsibility for this in an acceptable way.

The Chechen people are leading a nation-liberating struggle for its freedom

and independence, for its self-protection rather than for destruction or

humiliation of Russia. We offer you peace, but the choice is yours.

Allahu Akbar42

In the morning of September 3, 2004, there was an explosion inside the

school, after that the Russian special forces entered to the building. 330

people, including 186 children, were killed and another 783 were injured.

Some of the victims were killed in a gunfire, others by explosions or in a

subsequent fire.43 According to Nur-Pashi-Kulayev, "chechen

separatists" one of the "hostage-taker" had a foot on a trigger mechanism

and a Russian sniper hit him. That caused the explosions.44 It is the most

deadly terrorist attack in Russian history.45

Almost all of the perpetrators were killed, only survivor from a group of

"Chechen separatists" is Nur-Pashi-Kulayev, a Chechen carpenter, who

was almost lynched by the citiziens outside the school before authorities

captured him.46 He was convicted in 2006 of banditry, terrorism, hostage

taking, murder, attempted murder of members of the security forces,

illegal storage, possession and acquisition of weapons, ammunition and

explosives and was sentenced to a life in prison.47

2.7. CHARLIE HEBDO ATTACK

Charlie Hebdo is a satirical left-wing French weekly (hebdomadaire in

short hebdo means in French weekly), which makes fun of religious

figures, politicians and celebrities and uses cartoon in order to do that. It

is published in France and in a few French-speaking countries. The

satirical magazin was first published in 1969, in 1970 was banned for

mocking the death of former French President Charles de Gaulle and in

1981 ceased publication because of a lack of readers and founds. In

1992 was resurrected.48, 49

On the morning of 7 January 2015, two brothers, Chefir (32) and Said

Kouachi attacked the Charlie Hebdo offices were they killed 12 people:

eight journalists, two police officers, one caretaker and one visitor (eleven

men and one woman) to avenge the Prophet Muhammad. The Kouachi

brothers escaped, but on 9 January 2015 were found and killed by the

police. Meanwihle Amedy Coulibaly attacked Hyper Cacher supermarket

and took the present people hostage. He demanded the Kouachi brothers

were allowed to go free. The elite commandos freed 15 hostages from the

store and shot Coulibaly dead. In the Cacher supermarket were found

bodies of four hostages, all of them were Jews. Amedy Coulibaly´s wife,

Hayat Boumeddiene is sought by French police for being a suspected

accomplice of Coulibaly. Attack on the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo

is the deadliest attack in France since 1961, neverthless it is not the first

time Charlie Hebdo became a target of terrorism. On November 2011 the

magazine´s offices were fire-bombed after publishing a cartoon of

Muhammad.50,51,52,53

Befor the attack on Cacher supermarket, Amedy Coulibaly shot and killed

an unarmed policwoman in Montrouge and shot a jogger in Fontenay aux

Roses.54 He also put a bomb on a car which blew up in the Ville Juif, a

Jewish town in the southern suburbs of Paris.55 Therefore there are

speculations wheter Coulibaly targeted the Jews or not, since the four

victims from the Cacher supermarket was also Jews. According to the

President Obama the victims were killed "randomly." Below you can see

an interview with the report Jonathan Karl and the White House

spokesman Josh Earnest:

KARL: This was not a random shooting of a bunch of folks in a deli in Paris.

This was an attack on a kosher deli. Does the president have any doubt that

those terrorists attacked that deli because there would be Jews in that deli?

EARNEST: Well, Jon, it is clear from the -- the terrorists, in some of the

writings that they put out afterwards, what their motivation was. The adverb

that the president chose was used to indicate that the individuals who were

killed in that terrible tragic incident were killed not because of who they were,

but because of where they randomly happened to be.

KARL: Well, they weren't killed because they were in a Jewish deli, though?

Because they were in a kosher deli?

EARNEST: These individuals were not targeted by name. This is the point.

KARL: Not by name but by -- by religion, were they not?

EARNEST: Well, Jon, there were people other than just Jews who were in

that deli.

KARL: So you think that was a -- that deli was attacked because it was a

kosher deli...

EARNEST: No, Jon. Any random deli, Jon.

KARL: It was a kosher deli.

2.1. EARNEST: I answered the question once. No.56

2.8. JOURNALISTIC'S MEANS OF SOFTENING

2.8.1. DOUBLESPEAK

The word doublespeak was coined in 1984 by George Orwel.57 And it is a

"language designed to evade responsibility, make the unpleasant appear

pleasant, the unattractive appear attractive. Basically, it's language that

pretends to communicate, but really doesn't. It is language designed to

mislead, while pretending not to,"58 says William Lutz, American linguist

and author of Doublespeak.59 Doublespeak is used to circumvent,

deceive, distort, inflate, mislead and obfuscate.60 There are four types of

doublespeak. The first is euphemism, second is jargon, third type is

bureaucratese or gobbledygook and the fourth is inflated language.61

2.8.2. EUPHEMISMS

The word euphemism comes from Greek from 16th century and it means

speak with pleasing words. It replace a word which could be considered

offensive, hurful or unpleasant. Euphemisms are often used by politicians

and reporters, and especially in topics such as ethnicity, drugs, politics

and war.62

Euphemism is a kind of doublespeak. However it is not the case when

euphemisms are used in cultural taboo, in tactful phrases in order to

avoiding a paintful reality or in order not to hurt someone's feelings (e.g.

in expressing condolences).63 Euphemism becomes doublespeak, when it

is used to mislead or deceive.64 It is the case of describing terrorism in

media. Journalists and also politicians usually substitute the T-words with

words as militants, fighters, jihadists, etc. And it is a topic of the

theoretical part of this thesis, where is also explained the difference

among these words.

2.8.3. JARGON

The word jargon comes from 14th century from Old French and it is a

language, especially the vocabulary, appropriate to a specific

profession(used mostly by doctors, educators, engineers, lawyersand car

mechanics65 or particular group, also unintelligible talk without meaning,

gibberish.66 It allows to quickly comunicate within the specific group of

people.67

But if jargon is used in obscure or pretentious way, sometimes to impress

the people around, in knowing others will not understand, the jargon

becomes doublespeak.68

2.8.4. GOBBLEDYGOOK

In 1944, the Representative Maury Maverick (of Texas) coined the word

gobbledegook (from gobble). It is unintelligible or pretentous and wordy

jargon. It is often used by officials.69 Gobbledygook may sound

impressive, however usually does not make any sense.

2.8.5. BUREAUCRATESE

Bureaucratese is a type of language that is used especially by

bureaucrats. It is characterized by the use of abstractions, buzzwords,

circumlocutions, euphemisms and jargon. Bureaucratese is usually

unintelligible.70

2.8.6. INFLATED LANGUAGE

Inlated language intends to make ordinary thing, people, or situations

extraordinary, impressive or important.71

3. EUPHEMISMS AND DOUBLESPEAK

For this part I chose several articles from miscellaneous newspapers and

analysed them. I focused especially on different words describing

terrorism in media (attackers vs. militants vs. guerillas etc.) and their

distinction, on euphemisms and doublespeak, on their meaning and

perception, and on words used in connection with terrorism.

3.1. WORDS DESCRIBING TERRORISM

The terms terrorist and terrorism are often incorretly swaped by media for

terms like attacker, captor, commando, extremist, fundamentalist,

guerrilla, insurgent, millitant and resistance fighter. However, these words

do not mean the same thing and they should not be mistaken. Terrorists

can have extremist beliefs or guerilla motivations and perceive

themselves like that. But for defining them, their behaviour is more

important rather than their believes.72

Media are trying to avoid the word terrorism which has a negative bias, so

they rather use euphemisms, and in this case more likely doublespeak,

because it intends to mislead or deceive readers. According the research

there are at least 20 substitutions, which make terrorism look less

terrifying: activists, assailants, attackers, bombers, captors, commandos,

criminals, extremists, fighters, group, guerillas, gunmen, hostage-takers,

insurgents, kidnappers, militants, perpetrators, radicals, rebels,

separatists.73

The words like terrorist, jihad and Islamist are even forbidden for some

reporters. "Al Jazeera English executive Carlos van Meek banned his

news employees from using words like “terrorist,” “Islamist” and “jihad,”

explaining that it’s important to realize that some might take offense —

that one person’s idea of terrorism is simply another person’s fight for

freedom."74

But journalists are obligated to write the truth, they should not lie to their

readers and confused them. Because there is a difference between

freedom fighters and terrorists. For some it is just a matter of perception,

but there is more in it. Freedom fighters target agents of the government,

bases, military assets and soldiers, on the contrary terrorists target non-

combatants.75 Freedom fighters often come from oppressed groups,

something was deprived from them and they fight to get it back. On the

other hand, terrorist are concerned with destruction, rather than with

acquisition.76

3.2. BESLAN SCHOOL HOSTAGE CRISIS ATTACKERS

In following articles concerning the same terrorist atack (Beslan school

hostage crisis), you can see some examples of differen use of words

describing the terrorists and their real meaning.

"She said the attackers had identified themselves as

Chechens."77

The word attack comes from 16th century from French. An attacker is

someone who is aggressive, hositle or violent towards someone else in

order to hurt him.78

"At least 250 people - most of them students, teachers and

parents - died, according to official reports and witnesses, after

two large explosions set off pitched battles between heavily

armed captors and Russian forces that continued for hours."79

The word capto r comes form 17th century from Latin and means "a

person or animal that holds another captive."80

"A daring rescue by commandos killed all the guerrillas , but also

129 of the hostages, most from nerve gas pumped into the

building."81

The word guerrilla , also spelled guerilla comes from early 19th century

from Spanish and means little war. Guerrillas are civilians, they are not

members of a typical military unit. They are often fighting in their

homeland, so they know the landscape, they can have the support of the

local population. Guerrillas usually want to bring down the government by

surprise attacks (ambushes, raids, sabotages, vulnerable targets).82 They

attempt to take and hold territory, maintain political control over captured

territory of people and their goups are larger.83

"The hostages were crammed into the school's gym, which the

gunmen rigged with homemade explosives."84

The compound word gunman is composed of words gun and man. It is

used in American English85 from 1620s and it is "a man armed with a gun,

especially an armed criminal or a professional killer."86

"Moreover, the only surviving hostage-taker insists that the initial

explosions were ignited when a sniper shot a militant whose foot

was on the trigger."87

The word hostage comes from 13th century from Old French.88 An

hostage-taker is a person who abduct someone in order to extort certain

conditions (to get money, release prisoners,..).89

The word militant comes from 15th century from Latin.90 Militants are not

affraid to use violence, but in comparaison with terrorists, militants do not

need to use it. They use rather verbal violence.91

"On September 1, 2004, armed Chechen rebels took

approximately 1,200 children and adults hostage at a school in

Beslan, North Ossetia, Russia, at around 9 am local time. "92

The word rebel comes from 14th century from Old French, directly from

Latin and it is "a person who makes war on his country for political

motives."93

"The school seizure capped an already deadly week of terror

across Russia blamed on Chechen separatists, with the nearly

downing of two airliners and a suicide bombing at a Moscow

subway station that together claimed 100 lives."94

The word separatist comes from 16th century and means "a person who

advocates or practises secession from an organization or group."95

"The brutality of the hostage-taking seemed almost a natural

disaster _ - an outbreak of human savagery in which neither the

perpetrators nor their motives were known."96

Perpetrator , a word from 1560s comes from Late Latin, is a person who

commited an evil or criminal act.97

3.3. TERRORISTS OR NOT?

Because there is no united definition of terrorism, it is difficult to say what

is terrorist attack and what is not. According the head of BBC Arabic the

fighters who killed 12 people in the Charlie Habdo attack should not be

called terrorists, because the word terrorist is a "loaded" word.98

"We try to avoid describing anyone as a terrorist or an act as being

terrorist. What we try to do is to say that ‘two men killed 12 people in an

attack on the office of a satirical magazine." said the senoir BBC

executive.99 But again, the journalists shoul describe things as they are,

not try to avoid it. Of course, they want to diversify their articles, so it is

undesirable for them to use the same words all over again. And it is

obvious that if someone commits an attack, he is an attacker, if he have a

gun, he is a gunman, if he take someone hostage, he is a hostage-taker,

etc. But if these words are used to describe a perpetrator of a terrorist

attack it degrades the value of the message, or the attack itself and how

people perceive it. And the impact of it might be that one day people will

not be able to distinguish terrorist attack from a regular crime. Someone

is not able to do it already. After all, even journalis are not capablet to do

it.

In some press the Charlie Hebdo attacker are called "gunmen" or

"attackers" and in other "terrorists." In some articles you can read about

"terrorist attack" others mention "massacre." NBC News describes

Charlie Hebdo situation as a "massacre" commited by "attackers". They

do not mention any "terrorist attack" or "terrorists." And for example NY

Daily News described the attack as a "bloody rampage". Here are some

extracts from several newspapers:

"A survivor of the Charlie Hebdo massacre revealed how he hid

from the attackers by lying on the floor with his dog,.. "100

"Then, on the day of its publication, masked gunmen attacked

Charlie Hebdo’s offices in Paris."101

"The fugitives were holed up in a printing firm called Creation

Tendance Decouverte on an industrial estate on the outskirts of

the town."102

"Elite forces deployed snipers, helicopters and military equipment

- sealing off any means of escape for the suspected killers and

beginning a tense, eight-hour stand-off."103

"The announcement comes just days after two bloody rampages

in Paris, carried out by Islamic extremists, leaving 17 people

dead."104

"The White House will hold a summit in February that will focus

on ways citizens and governments can counter violent

extremism."105 ("Violent extremism" reffers here to Islamist

terrorism.)

"That's one challenge for authorities in the wake of last week's

bloodshed in France."106

UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said: "It was a horrendous,

unjustifiable and cold-blooded crime. It was also a direct assault on a

cornerstone of democracy, on the media and on freedom of

expression."107

"Social media responded to the terrorist attack with "Je suis

Charlie," or "I am Charlie."108

"Two other terrorists killed in shootouts with police following last

week's attacks await burial."109

3.4. REFFERING TO DESIGNATED TERRORIST GROUPS

Even designated terrorist organisations as Boko Haram or Hamas are not

usually called terrorist organisations and their members are not called

terrorists. They are called fighters, militants, jihadists,etc. If journalists are

not sure whether something is a terrorist organisation or not, they shoul

verify the facts. It is not that difficult and it is their job. Becaus gain, there

is a difference. Jihad is an Arabic word that means struggling or striving, it

is also often translated as holy war. It is not a violence concept, but if a

peaceful settlement is ineffective, military jihad can use force to the faith

against others. However innocents as women, children or invalids can not

be harmed.110 It is something what we can not say about terrorism,

because terrorists target especially non-combatants, which means

innocents. There is an example how journalists are describing Boko

Haram and Hamas, the terrorist organisations.

"A Nigerian military says Boko Haram militants have slit the

throats of 12 people in northeast Nigeria as the army was trying to

evacuate civilians from the area."111

"Subsequently, the fleeing Boko Haram fighters attacked the town

of Maidogo in Chad Friday. "112

"Boko Haram, the vicious jihadist group carrying out attacks in

northern Nigeria and neighbouring countries,.. "113

"Fighters from Nigerian Islamist group Boko Haram killed at least

ten people in overnight attacks on two villages in neighboring

northern Cameroon,.."114

"Abubakar Shekau, commander of the militant group Boko

Haram, had descended on the northeastern Nigerian city of

Gwoza,.."115

"The Palestinian militant group Hamas is continuing to stockpile

rockets and looking to forge regional alliances in anticipation of a

future war,.."116

"In the tunnel, a Hamas fighter said the group would press on with

restocking its arsenal or rockets and other weaponry and shoring

up its underground network."117

"Chatting in soft voices and laughing at times, Hamas men guided

the Reuters crew through corridors less than a meter (3.3 feet)

wide that are reached by descending a thin metal ladder through

a tiny shaft."118

3.5. EUPHEMISMS AND DOUBLESPEAK IN TERRORISM

"Asymmetrical warfare is a euphemism for terrorism, just like

collateral damage is a euphemism for killing innocent civilians."

Alan Dershowitz

The media do not use euphemisms/doublespeak just to replace ther word

terrorism, but also to town down the consequence, as the dead civilians,

and military actions including interogation/torture. But it might be more

tolerable than in the previous case. At leas usually, if it is not for deceiving

readers, but to make the incident sound less terrifying. In following

articles you can see the most used euphemisms, in articles connected to

the terrorism, and their meaning.

The first euphemism that worth mentioning is War on Terror . It really

means War on Radical Islam.119 Another is Department of Defense

which is actually Department of War.120 Below you can see more

euphemisms with examples of their application.

"The announced end of the air campaign comes just as Saudi

Arabia's King Salman mobilized the National Guard for the fight in

Yemen."121

Air campaign is a euphemism for bombing.122

"Body Count takes a clear and objective look at the various and

often contradictory–reports of mortality in conflicts directed by the

U.S. and allied forces in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan."123

The euphemism body count means "the total number of casualties after

a conflict."124

"To his family, Sodhi is as much a victim as those who died in the

air crashes. He represents, in a sense, collateral damage in

America's new war on terrorism."125

The word collateral damage coined in 1968 in U.S. is an euphemism

and means "unintentional damage to civil property and civilian casualties,

caused by military operation."126

"A preliminary investigation has found that friendly fire likely killed

U.S. Border Patrol Agent Nicholas J. Ivie and wounded another in

the rugged Arizona desert near the Mexico border, the FBI said

Friday."127

Friendly fire , also blue on blue is an euphemism for "weapon fire

coming from one´s own side that causes accidental injury or death to

one´s own forces."128

"The hostage-taker has been 'neutralised' a security source

says."129

The word neutralised in here is an euphemism for word 'killed'. The

article was published in US newspapers, but the word 'neutralised' is

written in British English, not in the American form 'neutralized'. We can

assume the speaker is a Frenchman, since the article concers an attack

in Paris.

"At least 17 French citizens were killed by terrorists in the chaos,

officials said, first in a massacre at a satirical newspaper that

some Muslims believed insulted the Prophet Muhammad,.."130

Massacre comes from Middle French (1580) and means "the

unnecessary indiscriminate killing of a large number of human beings or

animals, as in barbarous warfare or persecution or for revenge or

plunder".131

"It was a profoundly man-made disaster – that could and should

have been foreseen prevented,.."132

Man-made disaster or man-caused disaster is an euphemism for

terrorist attack.133

"The United States launched its opening attack against Iraq

Thursday morning, aiming at "targets of military opportunity" in a

pre-dawn "decapitation" strike.."134

Target of opportunity is a term for "a target visible to a surface or air

sensor or observer, which is within range of available weapons and

against which fire has not been scheduled or requested."135

Decapitation strike , also decapitation attack is a euphemism for

military attack that is supposed to destroy the enemy' leadership.136

"Ehud Barak is certain the US has plans for surgical strikes

against Iran as a last-ditch measure if Tehran refuses to stop its

development of a nuclear weapons capability."137

Surgical strike , also signature strike or targeted killing is "a military

action designed to destroy a particular target without harming other

people or damaging other buildings near it."138 However Mr. Shane, a

national security reporter, comments it: "I think [target killing] is far from a

euphemism. It denotes exactly what's happening: American drone

operators aim at people on the ground and fire missiles at them. I think

it's a pretty good term for what's happening, if a bit clinical."139

"ISIS and Al Qaeda are increasingly mounting and calling for

attacks on soft targets as a means of dettering Western assaults

on their strongholds.. "140

Soft target is an euphemisme for "a person or thing that is relatively

unprotected or vulnerable, especially to military or terrorist attack."141

"With an eye to the "ticking bomb" scenario, Israel authorized the use of

"moderate physical pressure" to persuade suspected terrorists to talk..

"142

Anopther euphemism is debriefing which stands for interrogation in the

third degree.143 According to a dictionary, noun "debrief" means "to

interrogate in order to obtain useful information or intelligence."144

"Torture" as distinct from "debrief" means "to cause extreme physical pain

to, esp. in order to extract information, break resistance, etc."145 After

watching a youtube video146 of the CIA interrogation of the al-Qaeda

operative Abu Zubaydah, you can make your own opinion, whether it is a

debriefing or torture. Below you can see the differen opinion on these two

words in an excerpt from an interview with Porter Goss, the then-director

of the CIA, and Charles Gibson, the ABC News anchor:

Charles Gibson: Let me ask you about torture. Porter Goss: Mm hmm. Charles Gibson: You said the other day that the CIA does not do torture. Correct? Porter Goss: That is correct. Charles Gibson: How do you define it? Porter Goss: Well, I define torture probably the way most people would, in the eye of the beholder. What we do does not come close because torture, in terms of inflicting pain or something like that, physical pain or causing a disability, those kinds of things that probably would be a common definition for most Americans, sort of you know it when you see it, we don’t do that because it doesn’t get what you want. We do debriefings because debriefings are, the nature of our business is to get information and we do all that, and we do it in a way that does not involve torture because torture is counterproductive. Charles Gibson: We reported in the past two weeks about, having talked to a number of people who have worked and did work in this agency, about six progressive techniques, each one harsher than the last to get terrorists to talk, including things like long term standing up, sleep deprivation, exposure for long periods of time

to cold rooms, or something called water boarding, which involves cellophane and, over the face and water being poured on an individual. Do those things take place? Porter Goss: (inaudible) we just simply . . . Charles Gibson: You know, you know what water boarding is, though, right? Porter Goss: I, I know what a lot of things are, but I am not going to comment. Charles Gibson: Would that come under the heading of—would that come under the heading of torture? Porter Goss: I don’t know. I . . . Charles Gibson: Well, under your definition of torture that you just gave me of inflicting pain? Porter Goss: Let me put it this way, I’m not going to comment on any individual techniques that anybody has brought forward as an allegation or have dreamed up or anything like that. What we do, as I’ve said many times, is professional, is lawful, it yields good results and it is not torture.147

Moderate physical pressure also enhanced 148 or harsh interrogative

techniques 149 or coercive interrogation 150 are eupehmisms for

practicing violent interrogation methods (shaking, tight handcuffing, sleep

deprivation, the use of cold water..).151

Sleep deprivation , also sleep management 152 involves "keeping

detainees awake for up to 180 hours, usually standing or in stress

positions, at times with their hands shackled above their heads."153

Heather Mac Donald, an American political commentator and journalist154

quoted: "keeping a terror suspect up past his bedtime for questioning is

not torture."155 Here we can see how is everything just a play withh word.

Because 180 hours is hardly past bedtime.

The use of cold water for example means, that detainees were during

interrogation dousing in cold water. After dousing they were wrapped in

plastic and left like that for several minutes. In November 20, 2002 Gul

Rahman, the suspect Afghan militant, died of hypothermia in a secret CIA

prison in nothern Kabul.156

"According to CIA records, Abu Ja'far al-Iraqi was subjected to

nudity, dietary manipulation, insult slaps, abdominal slaps,

attention grasps, facial holds, walling, stress positions and water

dousing with 44 degree Fahrenheit water for 18 minutes."157

Dietary manipulation is switching from solid food to liquid (the liquid diet

consists of Ensure and water). It also limits vomiting during

waterboarding.158

Attention grasp involves "grasping the suspect with both hands - one

hand on each side of the collar opening - in one quick motion. In the

same motion, the suspect is pulled towards the interrogator."159

Facial hold is a procedure when interrogator put his hand on each side of

detainee's face to keep his head immobile, keeping fingertips away from

the detainee's eyes.160

Walling is a method wehen suspect is slammed agains a fake wall. To

prevent a whiplash, his head and neck are supporteb with a rolled

towel.161

Stress position is an interrogation method when large amount of a

detainee weight is concentrating on a small amount of muscles.162

Detainee is for instance forced to stand erect for several hours, he might

be shackle to the ceiling with his arms extended, without his feet touching

the ground.163

Water dousing is a technique when detainee is naked, held down on a

tarp in the form of a bathtub and cold refrigerated water is poured on

him.164

Another interrogation methods:

Cramped confinement is a technique when the suspect is imprisoned for

up to 18 hours in a box big enought to stand up in. Or he is shut for up to

two hours in a smaller box just big enought to curl up in. Harmless insects

can be put inside the box.165

Rectal feeding , also rectal rehydration is a form of torture, when food is

pureed and rectally infused to the detainee166, which the former CIA chief

Michal Hayden commented as follows: "That was a medical procedure

because of detainee healt. The people that are responsible there for the

health of these detainees saw that they were becoming dehydrated…

This is one of the ways that the body is rehydrated." Accordin to him this

method was done every time for the health of the detainee, not to

interrogate or soften him.167

Rough takedown is a term for dragging suspect out of his cell, cutting off

his clothes, covering his head in a hood, securing him with a tape and

forcing him to run in a hallway. Meanwhile officers are slapping and

punching him.168

Wall standing is a methodn when detainee faces a wall that is about four

feet away. He have to reach out and touch the wall by his fingertips and

stay in that position.169

Water-boarding , sometimes also reffered as the water cure 170 or

suffocation by water 171 is an euphemism for a method in which a

detainee is strapped down, legs above their head, with his face wrapped

in a wet towel when water is continuously pour over his face. It causes

aspirating fluid to the point of being unable to breathe, it is a sensation of

drowning. The term water board was firstly recorded in 1976 and the

verb-noun waterbording in 2004.172 The suspected senior Bin Laden

lieutenant Abu Zubaydah was subject of waterboarding 83 times, Khalid

Sheikh Mohammed, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, underwent

the process 183 times.173

"The report also highlights the rendition of two Libyan nationals

who were taken to Tripoli against their will, along with their

families, in 2004."174

The term rendition was coined by US bureaucrats and it it an act of

"sending terrorism suspects to countries that allow the use of torture." It is

for example Pakistan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia or Egypt.175

"It is not known whether the Pentagon or the CIA still holds "ghost

detainees," Satterthwaite said, referring to people housed at

secret facilities."176

Ghost detainees , also ghost prisoners, are suspected terrorist that are

held in detention center by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency as

unregistered prisoners.177

3.6. OFTEN USED WORDS IN CONNECTION WITH

TERRORISM

Another often used words describing terrorism involve: bomb, brutality,

death, panic, violence, etc. These words have a negative bias. They

describe and arouse grief, pity, consternation or fear.

"The hostage takers reportedly wore suicide belts and bombs

were strapped to the basketball goals in the gymnasium."178

"They drove off towards Paris in the same Renault Clio car

hijacked after the attack on the Charlie Hebdo offices."179

"The siege of a school here in southern Russia ended Friday in

panic, violence and death 52 hours after it began."180

"The brutality of the hostage-taking seemed almost a natural

disaster _ - an outbreak of human savagery in which neither the

perpetrators nor their motives were known."181

"The French police killed three terrorists on Friday in raids, ending

three days of bloodshed that shook a nation struggling with

Islamic extremists."182

The word raid means a sudden surprise attack and comes from 15th

century from Old English.183

"The group's abduction of 276 schoolgirls a year ago shocked the

world, but its brutality has gone much further: When the group

sacked Gwoza, its fighters beheaded boys and men like goats,

burned dozens on a pyre and announced that the women were

slaves who would be forcibly married off or sold. Boys as young

as 10 were shot."184

"Many other boys were abducted and forced to join the group to

fight and learn its hard, narrow view of the Koran, played out in

endless killing and suicidal jihad. No one knows how many boys

were abducted, how many males were killed, and how many

women were forced into marriage in Gwoza during Boko Haram's

terrifying eight-month occupation of the city of about 275,000."185

Koran also spelled Qur'an is a "sacred text of Islam, considered by

Muslims to contain the revelation of God to Muhammad."186 According to

the Koran, "Muslims have the duty of fighting enemies and invading non-

Muslim territories to spread Islam."187

"ISIS and Al Qaeda are increasingly mounting and calling for

attacks on soft targets as a means of dettering Western assaults

on their strongholds.."188

ISIS is an abbreviation which "stands for Islamic State in Iraq and Syria

and is a militant group ruling by Sharia law."189

Al Qaeda (The Base) is "an international terrorist network which is

responsable for the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon

(September 11, 2001). It was founded by Osama bin Laden in 1989."190

4. CONCLUSION

In this thesis I worked with terrorism like with a concept that is

understand and describe in U. S. media differently. Journalists are

avoiding to use the terms terrorism and terrorists, even when they are

reffering to a terrorist organisation and their members or actions. They

substitute these word with double speak and euphemisms. And that is

what I am focusing on in my thesis. Primarily in the practical part, since

the theoretical one introduces to the problematics of defining of terrorism

and provides the information necessary for better understanding.

I sacrifice the majority of my bachelor thesis to euphemisms and

doublespeak. Sometimes they can help us, in polite phrases, to express

our condolences or to avoid the taboos. But they can be also a

comunication batrier. They soften the meaning of words and it gives them

the ability to camouflage the real meaning and this way to it deceives the

reader or listener. In this case it impede the reader to see what is really

happening. The vocabulary of doublespeak and eupehmisms in the fiel of

terrorism is very rich. Just for the word terrorist, there are about 20

subsitutions. Also the vocabulary of torture/interrogation and it's methods

is very extensive.

In the theoretical part are interviews where national security reporter

defends the term surgical strike which according to him, is not a

euphemis,the director of the CIA claims they do not torture people, but he

intentionally avoids the direct answers. He also siad that rectal feeding is

just a medical procedure and is not used for torture. And for a political

commentator and journalist 180 hour without sleeping is not a sleep

deprivation. This supports my idea, for journalists and politicians it is just

a game of words. Their attitude of speaches and writing will not change,

they will be creating new eupehmisms and doblespeak, as long as we will

not understand them. This different describing of terrorists and their acts

has a negativ influence on our ability to distinguish terrorism from other

criminal acts. The last part of the second chapter shows that the articles

about terrorism are full of terms with negative bias. They relate to assault,

death, violence, killing, panic, fear

5. RESUMÉ

Tato práce se zabývá používáním slov 'terorismus' a 'terorista' a

především jak jsou tato slova v tisku nahrazována. Dále se pak zabývá

skutečným významem těchto substitucí, jelikož je důležité si všimnou, že

tato slova nejsou ke slovu 'terorista' nebo 'terorismus' synonymní. Jedná

se o eufemismy a takzvané mlžení. Tyto metody jsou v americkém tisku

velmi používané, ovšem nejsou žádoucí, jelikož svoji povahou, která

snižuje význam slov, klamou čtenáře. Eufemismy a mlžení zmírňují slova

s negativním podtextem, což v případě teroristického útoku nepodává

přesné informace. V této práci jsou také vybrané další, jedny

z nejpoužívanějších a nejzajímavějších eufemismů týkající se terorismu.

Na konci praktické části jsou úryvky z novinových článků, kde je vidět,

jaká slova se spojí s popisem teroristických útoků.

Aby však běžný čtenář bez většího zájmu o terorismus mohl pochopit

praktickou část, předcházjí jí část teoretická, kde jsou vysvětlené pojmy

jako terrorismu, eufemismus a mlžení. Dále je zde charakteristika

teroristických organizací Boko Haram a Hamas a popis teroristického

útoku na Beslanskou školu v Severní Osetii a na redakci francouzského

časopisu Charlie Hebdo.

6. ABSTRAKT

This bachelor thesis deals with words 'terrorism' and 'terrorist', primarily

with their substitution. It is important to notice that these substituting

words are not synonymous to the words 'terrorism' and 'terrorist'. They

are euphemisms and doublespeak. These methods are very used in

American press, but they are unwanted, because they deceive the

reader. The word with negative bias are replaced by pleasing words

which in the case of reporting terrorist attack is very inaccurate. In this

thesis you can also find one of the most common and the most interesting

euphemisms concerning terrorism. At the end of the practical part are

extracts from newspaper articles, where you can see what words are

connect with the description of terrorist attack.

Before the practical part is a part theoretical, so a common reader with no

special interest in terrorism would be able to understand the practical

part. In the theoretical part are explain terms like terrorism, euphemism

and doublespeak, there is also a characteristic of Boko Haram and Hams

which are terrorist organisations and than there is a description of the

terrorist attack on Beslan school in North Ossetia and on the editorial

office of the french magazine Charlie Hebdo.

7. BLIOGRAPHY

Printed sources:

Chalk, P. (2013). Encyclopedia of terrorism. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-

CLIO.

Forst, B., Greene, J. and Lynch, J. (2011). Criminologists on terrorism

and homeland security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Matusitz, J. (2013). Terrorism & communication. Thousand Oaks, Calif.:

SAGE.

Moeller, S. (2009). Packaging terrorism. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-

Blackwell.

Thackrah, J. and Thackrah, J. (2004). Dictionary of terrorism. London:

Routledge.

8. ENDNOTES

1 MATUSITZ, J. (2013). Terrorism & communication, p.1

2 FORST, B., GREENE, J., LYNCH, J. (2011), Criminologists on terrorism

and homeland security, p. 41

3 FORST, B., GREENE, J., LYNCH, J., p. 42






9 A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. (2007). 5th ed.

[ebook]

10 MATUSITZ, J. (2013)., p. 14-18

11 MATUSITZ, J. (2013)., p. 1

12 MATUSITZ, J. (2013)., p. 2

13 MATUSITZ, J. (2013)., p. 1


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33THACKRAH, J. (2004)., Dictionary of terrorism, p. 112

35 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i08L09V0_sg

36 What is Hamas, and Why is it Considered a Terrorist Organization?

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37 The Blaze, 2014

39 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i08L09V0_sg

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