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Title"Where are we going, Dad" : a multiple case study of Chinesefathers' parenting styles shown in the TV show

Author(s) Fang, Yilin; ¹‚z—

Citation

Issued Date 2015

URL http://hdl.handle.net/10722/223644

RightsThe author retains all proprietary rights, (such as patent rights)and the right to use in future works.

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Abstract of thesis entitled ,“Where Are We Going, Dad”: A Multiple Case Study of

Chinese Fathers’ Parenting Styles Shown in the TV Show” submitted by Yilin Fang

for the degree of Master of Education

at the University of Hong Kong

The present study explored Chinese fathers’ parenting styles in early childhood

education through a Chinese reality TV show, “where are we going, Dad”. This is a

multiple case study to examine the five fathers’ parenting styles in the TV show,

according to Baumrind’s three parenting typology. The five fathers are Zhiying Lin,

Liang Zhang, Liang Tian, Yuelun Wang, and Tao Guo, Their parenting styles were

examined using Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) by Robinson,

Mandleco, Olsen, and Hart (1995). Every case was observed for 12 times and

altogether sixty evaluation forms were collected and analyzed. The results indicated

that: (1) five of them were authoritative, (2) The fathers with older children tended to

use authoritarian parenting style, whereas the fathers of younger children tended to be

authoritative; (3) The fathers with girls tended to have less parental control, whereas

the fathers with boys tended to have more parental control; and (4) the Taiwanese

father, Lin, tended to be more liberal and authoritative, whereas the Mainland China

father, Guo showed more authoritarian sides in parenting.

Keywords: parenting style, Chinese father, PSDQ, Baumrind’s theory,

authoritative, authoritarian

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“WHERE ARE WE GOING, DAD”: A MULTIPLE CASE STUDY OF CHINESE

FATHERS’ PARENTING STYLES SHOWN IN THE TV SHOW

By

Yilin Fang

A thesis submitted for the degree

Of

Master of Education

In the Faculty of Education at the University of Hong Kong

2015

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Declaration

I hereby declare that this dissertation represents my own work and that it has not

been previously submitted to this University or any other institution in application for

admission to a degree, diploma or other qualifications.

方藝霖

June 2015

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Acknowledgements

I would never finish my dissertation without the support, help and guidance of

my supervisor and my family.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Li Hui, for his

encouragement, guidance, patience, and help for doing this research. He has a big

heart to every student like me, and without his guidance and persistent help, this

dissertation would not have been possible.

I would like to thank my husband, Fei He, who has been always supporting me

and encouraging me to continue this research and study. He is the person who would

always stand by me through good times and bad.

In addition, a special thanks to my little daughter, Sammie, who has always been

my biggest joy and love.

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Table of Contents

Declaration …...…………………………………………...…………………………III

Acknowledgements………………………………………...…………….…………..IV

List of Tables………………………………………………..………………………VII

List of Appendices………………………………………….………………………VIII

Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………….……………………………….1

1.1 Rationale for the Study………………………..………………………………3

1.2 Purpose Statement…………………………….………………………………4

1.3

Significance of the study……………………….……………………………..4

1.4 Thesis Structure……………………………………………………………….5

Chapter 2: Authoritative versus Authoritarian: The Debate on Chinese Parenting

Style……………………………………………………………………………………7

2.1 Parenting Style…..……………………………………………………………7

2.2 Chinese Parenting Style………………………………………………………8

2.3 Factors that Affect Fathers’ Parenting Decisions and Styles…..……………13

2.4 The Effect of Fathers’ Parenting……………………………….……………19

2.5 Literature Gap…..……………………………………………...……………23

Chapter 3: Methodology……………………………………………….……………..25

3.1 Statement of Research Questions……………………………………………253.2 Overview of research design…………………………………………...……25

3.3Participants……………………………………………..…………………….26

3.4 Measure……………………………………………………..……………….27

3.4.1 Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire……………..………..27

3.4.2 Sampling………………………………………………………….…..29

3.4.3 Quantifying…………………………………………………..………..29

3.5 Procedure……………………………………………………….……………33

Chapter 4: Results…………………………………………………………..………..34

4.1 Each Fathers’ Parenting Style Analysis…………………………….……….35

4.1.1 Zhiying Lin’s parenting style……………………….…………...……35

4.1.2 Liang Zhang’s parenting style……………………………………...…36

4.1.3 Liang Tian’s parenting style……………………….………….....……37

4.1.4 Yuelun Wang’s parenting style…………………….…………....……39

4.1.5 Tao Guo’s parenting style…………………….…………...………….41

4.2 Five Fathers’ General Parenting Style……………………………………....43

4.3 Differences According to Children’s Different Age and Gender……….…..44

4.3.1 Differences according to different age………………………………..44

4.3.2 Differences according to different gender………………….…………444.4 Taiwanese Father’s parenting style………………………………………….45

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4.5 Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………46

Chapter 5: Discussion……………………………………………………..……...…..47

5.1 Authoritative: The Mainstream Parenting Style in China………………...…47

5.2The Influential Factors of Chinese Fathers’ Parenting……………………….495.3 How Bronfenbrenner’s Theory Explains the Influential Factors………..…..50

Chapter 6: Conclusion, Limitations, Implications, and Suggestions…………….…..53

6.1 General Conclusion……………………………………………………….…53

6.2 Limitations of the Research………………………………………...………..53

6.3 Educational Implications…………………………………………….………54

6.4 Contribution of the Research and Suggestions for Future Studies……..……55

References…………………………………………………………………………....56

Appendices…………………………………………………………………………...64

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List of Tables

Table 1 Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire constructions………………30

Table 2 Zhiying Lin’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode……………35

Table 3 Liang Zhang’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode…………..37Table 4 Liang Tian’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode……...……..38

Table 5 Yuelun Wang’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode…..……..40

Table 6 Tao Guo’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode……...………..41

Table 7 Five fathers’ parenting factors average scores………………………………42

Table 8 Five fathers’ parenting items average scores………………………………..43

Table 9 Five fathers’ parenting style average scores………………...………………44

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List of Appendices

Appendix Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire…………………………..64

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Chapter 1: Introduction

This study is a multiple case study of the five celebrity fathers’ parenting styles in

the reality TV show, “Where Are We Going, Dad” season one. This study will

analyze the parenting styles of the five fathers’ in the TV show to find out the Chinese

fathers’ parenting style in early childhood.

Talking about the parental involvement in early childrearing, people usually think

that it is mothers’ job. Fathers’ roles are usually being neglected in family activities

(Turbiville & Marquis, 2001, p. 223). Parenting and taking care of children is

naturally defined as “feminine and women’s labor” and is called “natural for women”

(Cameron, Moss, & Owen, 1999, p. 9). Fathers do not feel responsible in caring or

rearing for children (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p.2). Researchers also tend to

focus more on children’s mothers than their fathers, so the study about the fathers’

involvement in children’s early childhood is neglected (Gadsden & Ray, 2003, p. 2).

Even if fathers are involved in parenting, they tend to focus more on play, when

mothers more concern about nurturance (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p.4). In

childcare, man’s skills and job is often considered to be more practical work, such as

fixing facilities, and they consider it as their “natural” work (Cameron, Moss, &

Owen, 1999, p. 78). Therefore, fathers do not involve in parenting often. It has been

shown that in families which mothers do not have a job, the fathers only spend

one-fourth of the time that the mothers spend with their children in interacting with

children, and about one-third of the time being reachable to the children (Lamb &

Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 2).

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However, fathers’ role is being paid attention day by day. The notion has changed

a lot, and it has been proven that young fathers do involve in childrearing activities

more than their own fathers (Ho & Kang, 1984, p. 1004). It has been proven that

fathers are slowly engaged more in parenting over time (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda,

2004, p. 2). Higgins (2005) found out in his research that 49% of the fathers admitted

their responsibilities in children’s rearing (p. 106). It has been found out that fathers

spend at least one hour with their children actively every week, and most of the

divorced fathers try to spend at least one day per month with their children (Halme,

Astedt-Kurki, Tarkka, 2009, p. 114). Fathers’ role has been changed from

breadwinners from the time of industrialization to “companions, care providers,

spouses, protectors, models, moral guides, teachers, breadwinners”, whom play an

important roles in children (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 3).

Fathers’ role is considered more and more important nowadays, and many studies

about fathering have also been conducted. Researchers also started to pay attention to

fathers’ roles. Nord, Brimhall, and West (1997) insist that the involvement of fathers

in parenting is as important as the involvement of mothers in the children’s

achievement and behavior (p. 77). Some studies also found out that fathers’ parenting

styles tend to be less positive and concerned and more harsh than mothers, and fathers’

parenting practices tend to be less positive and show less responsiveness and

demandingness (Shek, 1998, p. 534). Fathers’ parenting has been paid more attention

and has been a controversial issue.

However in China, the research about fathering has only been put attention since

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2002, and still, there are lack of sampling, measurement, and comparability among

studies (Shwalb, Nakazawa, Yamamoto, & Hyun, 2010, p. 345).

Then a TV show, called “Where Are We Going, Dad” was broadcasted, and the

fathers’ parenting styles became a controversial issue in Chinese society. Audiences

start to pay attention to fathers. Chinese researchers start to comment on the TV show.

Fathers start to feel the responsibility being part of the childrearing activities. Then

what is Chinese fathers’ parenting style? Through this TV show, the author will try to

find out the answer.

1.1 Rationale for the Study

This study is necessary and meaningful due to many reasons. First of all, fathers’

parenting style and their roles are being paid more and more attention, and this

research, studying the fathers’ parenting styles can be a meaningful input in related

area. Second, “Where Are We Going, Dad”, now is on season three, has become the

most popular reality TV show in China, and that means people started to pay more

and more attention to fathers’ parenting. Through the TV show, Chinese fathers’

parenting style could be analyzed. Third, not many research has been done on Chinese

parents’, especially Chinese fathers’, parenting styles. Because of the influence of

long traditional Chinese culture and the Confucian philosophy, Chinese fathers’

parenting style must be an interesting issue to explore deeper. Also, since the

influence of western ideology, the change of fathers’ parenting style through the time

could also be in interesting research point. In general, this study, examining Chinese

fathers’ parenting style through reality TV show, is needed and meaningful.

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1.2 Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study is to explore Chinese fathers’ parenting styles through a

Chinese reality TV show. This study will use Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, and Hart’s

(1995) Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ), combined with

Baumrind’s (1971) four parenting styles，to examine the five celebrity fathers’

parenting styles one by one in “Where are we going, dad” season one, twelve

episodes in total.

1.3 Significance of the study

The significance of this study could be found in many areas. In practical

perspectives, this study examining Chinese fathers’ parenting style is necessary and

meaningful for educators, researchers, and parents. Time is changing, and the world is

shouting for equality for men and women. The labors are also evenly distributed, from

men working outside and women taking care of the house to men and women equally

work and take care of their home. Accordingly, parenting is not considered as

women’s responsibilities. The necessity for fathers’ participation in parenting is

requested, especially in this rapidly developing country, China. More studies about

fathers’ parenting style is needed, especially in Chinese context, to explore about

what fathers can do, how fathers can do, and what the fathers’ roles are.

Also, there are still debates on the mainstream of Chinese parenting style

between authoritative and authoritarian. Therefore, this study is conducted to explore

empirical evidence to settle down this debate.

Theoretically, Researchers have been using Baumrind’s (1971) parenting

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typology to identify parents’, especially mothers’, parenting styles in different

cultures (Chao, 1994, 2001; Lim & Lim, 2005; Cheah, 2009; Xu, Farver, Zhang, Zeng,

Yu, & Cai, 2005). Not many studies have been done to examine fathers’ parenting

styles using Baumrind’s theory, especially in Chinese context. This study is doing this

job to fill out the gap and provide more input to the parenting style research.

Also, Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) has been stated

from 1995, and not many studies have done using this measurement in Chinese

context. Though Fu et al (2013) have found out that this measurement was suitable in

Chinese context, no studies have done to use this measurement to examine Chinese

fathers’ parenting style. Therefore, this study is worth to be invested, and it will also

be a meaningful and helpful research practically and theoretically.

1.4 Thesis Structure

This dissertation has six chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the background

information of the fathers’ parenting, brief introduction of the fathers’ parenting in

Chinese context, rationale for study, purpose statement, and the significance of the

study .

Chapter 2 is a literature review titled as authoritative versus authoritarian: the

debate on Chinese parenting style. Definition and previous studies about parenting

style, Chinese parenting style, the factors that affect fathers’ parenting decisions and

styles, the effect of fathers’ parenting, the literature gap are discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 3 outlines the methodology parts. The research questions will be stated,

and overview of research design, participants, measure, and procedure will be

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presented in this chapter.

Chapter 4 presents the results and the findings of this study. It discusses each and

general fathers’ parenting styles, the analysis according to children’s different age,

different gender, and Taiwanese father’s parenting style.

Chapter 5 discusses the relevant issues according to the results of this study. It

discusses the authoritative parenting style in Chinese context, the influential factors of

Chinese fathers’ parenting, and the analysis applying Bronfenbrenner’s theory.

Chapter 6 concludes this study. The limitations, educational implications,

contribution of the research, and the suggestions for the future study is indicated in

this chapter.

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Chapter 2: Authoritative versus Authoritarian: The Debate on Chinese

Parenting Style

The purpose of this chapter is to review the previous studies and research about

the parenting styles, Chinese parenting style, factors that affect fathers’ parenting, the

effect of fathers’ parenting, and to find the literature gap. Parenting style has been a

popular issue among educators since Baumrind proposed three different parenting

styles. Fathers’ parenting style has been a rising issue nowadays, and lots of studies

are conducted searching for fathers’ roles, their influences on children, and their

parenting styles. More over, there have always been debate on the mainstream of

Chinese parenting style between authoritative and authoritarian, and this chapter is

looking deeper into the debate.

2.1 Parenting Styles

Many definitions have been stated about parenting style. Darling and Steinberg

(1993) defined parenting styles as “constellation of attitudes toward the child that are

communicated to the child that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which

the parent’s behaviors are expressed” (p. 488). Fox, Platz, and Bentley (1995) define

parenting style as “setting the context of the parent-child relationship (e.g.,

communicates a parent’s attitude toward the child, contributes to effectiveness of

parenting practices, moderates child’s openness to parental influences)” (p. 431).

Then Baumrind studied the types of the parenting style, and studies have been

conducted using her definition. Baumrind (1971) identified three types of parenting

styles: authoritarian authoritative, and permissive parenting styles, and among these

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three parenting styles, she states that authoritative parents are “most likely to facilitate

the development of competence via responsible behavior and competence via

independent behavior in young children” (p. 100).

Accordingly, researchers start to focus on different factors that affect parents’

parenting styles. Belsky (1984) mentioned that children’s temperament and behaviors,

parents’ working conditions, especially mothers’ employment status, as well as social

support could all affect the parents’ parenting style in both quality and quantity(p. 86).

Parents’ psychological well-being is also regard as one of the predictor of parenting

style, that a “supportive developmental experiences give rise to a healthy mature

personality, that is then capable of providing sensitive parental care which fosters

optimal child development (Belsky, 1984, p. 86). Fox, Platz, and Bentley (1995)

found that maternal age, number of children, socioeconomic status, educational

experiences, and marital status could all affect parents’ parenting style and parenting

practice. Some researchers classified these factors in short words. Chen’s (2002)

stated that parenting style is influenced by three elements: mothers’ characteristics,

children’s characteristics, and the contextual factors (p. 425). As it has been

mentioned above, many factors could affect parents’ choosing different parenting

styles. Then what exactly affect fathers’ decisions on involving in childrearing

activities and choosing different parenting styles?

2.2 Chinese Parenting Style

The most influential factor that affects Chinese parents’ parenting style must be

Confucian philosophy. Traditional Chinese parenting style is affected by the

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Confucian family value of filial piety and has authority involved (Quoss & Zhao,

1995, p. 275). Under the influence of Confucian philosophy, “Chinese values of

collectivism, conformity to norms, emotional self-control and humility were

associated with an authoritarian parenting style, whereas collectivism and conformity

to norms were also correlated with the authoritative parenting style” (Xu, Farver,

Zhang, Zeng, Yu, & Cai, 2005, p. 529). Chinese parents also hope their children

become adults who have characteristics of “in a descending order,

competence-achievement, moral character, sociability, and controlled temperament.”

(Ho & Kang, 1984, p. 1010). Chinese parents think independence is very important,

which derives from hard working, but they do not push children to hardship, instead,

they tend to invest their affectionate, financial and educational support to their

children to make sure they could go through the hardship (Fong, 2007, p. 94). Chinese

parents tend to pay higher attention towards’ children’s academic achievement than

social activities, and this might could be explained as connected with traditional

Confucian value of focusing on one’s academic competence (Huntsinger, Josh, &

Larson, 1998, p. 755). Chinese parents tend to believe that the “nuture was more

important than nature in determining the child’s character formation” (Ho & Kang,

1984, p. 1009).

Under the influence of the Confucian philosophy, researchers argue that

traditional Chinese parents tend to use authoritarian parenting style. Quoss and Zhao

(1995) found out that the filial piety is still existing in Chinese families, and that the

more authoritarian the parents have the better the relationship between parents and

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children that the children perceived (p. 275). Chinese parents consider that being

democratic is an ideal parenting style, but the children insist that their parents still

have authority in the relationships with them, and the children have mix feelings of

both willing to have democratic parenting and being also satisfied with the current

authoritarian parenting style of their parents (Quoss & Zhao, 1995, p. 275). Quoss and

Zhao (1995) found out that the urban children in China considers their parents to be

more authoritarian than what the parents think, and in contrast, the urban parents

consider themselves as democratic parents (p. 275). Research indicates that urban

fathers tend to be more demanding, controlling, warm, and distant to their children,

comparing with the rural fathers (Shwalb, Nakazawa, Yamamoto, & Hyun, 2010, p.

361).

One Child Policy, announced in 1979, should also be paid attention. Because of

this policy, one family usually has only one child, and this child should also meet the

responsibility of caring for their old parents when they grow up. This policy affects

family interactions and parent-child relationships (Quoss & Zhao, 1995, p. 265).

Chinese mothers consider their only child being self-centered and lonely, and they are

willing to have more children if the law is allowed (Shwalb, Nakazawa, Yamamoto,

& Hyun, 2010, p. 356).

Another factor could be the employment status in China. Since women in China

still face difficulties to find a job even though they eager to work, the income of the

women in families is much less than men’s (Shwalb, Nakazawa, Yamamoto, & Hyun,

2010, p. 349). Accordingly, it has become the women’s job to rear the children.

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Chinese traditional concept, “guan” (means “training”) could also be an

influential factor in Chinese parents’ parenting styles (Chen, 2002, p. 426). Lim and

Lim (2005) found that western concept of parenting style may misleading when

applied to Chinese context, and the concept of Chinese “guan” (means “training) may

fits better in Chinese society, involving both Baumrind’s authoritarian parenting

concept and the unique characteristics of Chinese parents (p. 27). They suggest that

the definition of warm and control should be redefined in different cultural

background (Lim & Lim, 2005, p. 24).

Because of the various reasons, the number of the Chinese latchkey children, who

have problems in cognitive gender role, personality, and physical development, is

increased (Shwalb, Nakazawa, Yamamoto, & Hyun, 2010, p. 349). Also, because of

the diversity of the 56 ethnic groups and different ethnical cultures, it is hard to

generalize the definition and values for fathering or fathers’ parenting in China

(Shwalb, Nakazawa, Yamamoto, & Hyun, 2010, p. 346).

Traditionally Chinese parents are characterized as “strict father, kind mother”

(Ho, 1989, p. 155) Traditional Chinese mothers are characterized as “affectionate,

kind, lenient, protective and even indulgent”, and Chinese fathers are usually seemed

as “stern disciplinarian, more concerned with the demands of propriety and necessity

than with feelings, to be feared” by their children (Ho, 1989, p. 155). While mothers

concern a lot with Chinese traditional values in childrearing, such as children’s

sex-related and aggressive behaviors, fathers’ “attitudes toward child training show a

greater departure from traditional pattern” (Ho & Kang, 1984, p. 1010).

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Ho (1989) said that the notion of “strict father, kind mother” is now changing (p.

155). Shek (1995) found that no remarkable difference between fathers’ and mothers’

parenting across different socioeconomic status, and the difference between paternal

parenting and maternal parenting are less and less in China according to the

industrialization and westernization. Researchers are now saying that Chinese

parenting now is the mixture of Western and Eastern parenting styles (Way et al.,

2013, p. 68).

In general, because of the different influential factors, the debate on the Chinese

parents’ parenting style has always been a controversial issue. Researchers debate

Chinese parents’ parenting style correlates with authoritative parenting style

influenced by Confucian philosophy (Xu, Farver, Zhang, Zeng, Yu, & Cai, 2005).

Researchers who insists the parenting mainstream in China as authoritarian state that

in Confucian philosophy, individual’s role in society, such as Chinese parents keep

distance from their children to show a kind of respect, create harmonious

interpersonal relationship, and this idea reflects the characteristics of authoritarian

parenting (Xu, Farver, Zhang, Zeng, Yu, & Cai, 2005). Whereas some researchers

believe that Confucian philosophy mead Chinese parents to use authoritarian

parenting style (Quoss & Zhao, 1995). Some researchers (Lim & Lim, 2005) argue

that Chinese traditional concept, “guan” is another expression of Baumrind’s

authoritarian parenting. Whereas some researchers (Ho, 1989) argue that because of

the continuously developing status of China, parenting style is influenced by the

internationalization and westernization, using more authoritative parenting. The

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debate is still going on, and this study want to find the empirical evidence for this

debate.

2.3 Factors that Affect Fathers’ Parenting Decisions and Styles

Lamb and Tamis-LeMonda (2004) describes that fathers’ involvement in

parenting is affected by many factors such as “psychological factors, the children’s

individual characteristics, social support, community and cultural influence, and

institutional practices and public policies” (p. 11). According to this study, the factors

that could influence fathers’ decisions could be motivation, competency and skills,

family structure, partners’ support, children’s age and self-competency, and cultural

and social support.

Motivation. Bouchard, Lee, Asgary, and Pelletier (2007) consider motivation as

one of the important factors that affect fathers’ parenting decisions (p. 37). Fathers

who have less motivations, who do not consider parenting important or who do not

feel interests in it tend to spend less time with their preschool-aged children (Halme,

Astedt-Kurki, Tarkka, 2009, p. 115). Factors to motivate a father to involve more in

parenting is related with his feeling about fathering, which has been shaped by “his

cultural and family background, as well as by his own temperament” (Nielsen, 2012,

p. 52). It has been proven that nowadays, fathers are more motivated to involve in

parenting. This changes has been taken place according to the women’s movement

and the changes of the roles of male and female, and it is also affected by the shaped

image of the “new father” by the media hype (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 12).

Fathers think that their involvement in parenting is because that they value their

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responsibility being fathers rather than being forced to (Bouchard, Lee, & Pelletier,

2007, p. 37). Fathers are also motivated by other factors, such as the assigned

activities they are involved. Bouchard, Lee, Asgary, and Pelletier (2007) confirmed

that fathers want to contribute more on children’s emotional and educational

development rather than their physical activities (p. 35). Halme, Astedt-Kurki, and

Tarkka (2009) also got the similar findings that fathers tend to involve more in

activities related to the “home and surroundings, pets, shopping, and play” rather than

in their children’s physical care (p. 115).

Competency and Skills. Bouchard, Lee, Asgary, and Pelletier (2007) found that

one of the factors that affects the decisions of fathers’ involvement in parenting is

their sense of competence (p. 37). Fathers hesitate to participate in parenting because

they feel that they are not as effective and competent as mothers when parenting their

children with special needs (Higgins, 2005, p. 109). However, if they feel that they

are confident to be involved in children’s caring, it will positively affect their

decisions to take part in family centered activities (Higgins, 2005, p. 112). Also, the

lack of the fathers’ parenting skills prevents fathers’ involvement in parenting, and it

leads to the fear of the fathers’ incompetence and failure (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda,

2004, p. 13). Not only their parenting skills, but their incomes also influence fathers’

depression symptoms, and it accordingly affects the parents’ parenting styles (Kim &

Ge, 2000, p. 431).

Family Structure. Family structure could also be one of the influential factors.

Fathers tend to spend less time with their children if “the marriage or common-law

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marriage” is new for one of the spouses (Halme, Astedt-Kurki, Tarkka, 2009, p. 115).

Fathers in two-parent families are less likely involved in parenting than the fathers in

single-parent families (Nord, C. W., Brimhall, D., & West, J., 1997, p. 78). However,

divorced fathers with joint custody showed most commitment to the parenting, and

they were eager to invest time for their children in playing, reading, caring, and

emotionally helping their children (Halme, Astedt-Kurki, Tarkka, 2009, p. 115).

Not only the marital structure among family members, but also the personalities,

employment structures, and the relationships among the family members also affect

fathers’ parenting decisions and their parenting styles. Jewell, Krohn, Scott, Carlton,

and Meinz (2008) found that children could be negatively affected by the

“inconsistency in discipline” of their parents, when one of the parents is more

permissive than the other (p. 184). Also, it has been found that fathers in the families

which has employed mothers are more likely engaged in parenting than the ones

which has unemployed mothers (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 3). In choosing

parenting style, it has been proven that the parental control in restrictive parenting

style has positive relationships with parent-adolescent conflict (Lay &, Cheung, 1987,

p. 728).

Partners’ Support. Bouchard, Lee, Asgary, and Pelletier (2007) found that

mothers’ support was one of the factors that affect the decisions of fathers’

involvement (p. 37). Fathers consider mothers as supportive elements rather than

sources of coercion (Bouchard, Lee, & Pelletier, 2007, p. 37). Mothers are

“gatekeepers” of the fathers’ access to their children, and it is often mothers who

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request and assign the responsibilities to the fathers in the children’s parenting (Lamb

& Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 13). Turbiville and Marquis (2001) found that fathers are

more likely to participate in children’s programs companied with their wives and

partners (p. 229). Man-only children program is not a good strategy to encourage

fathers to participate in the children’s activities. The harmony within the family,

especially between the role distribution of the father and the mother, is very important

in children’s development (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 14). Some studies

points out another results. Fagan (1999) insists that one of the factors that leads to

fathers’ decisions to involve in parenting is that mothers are not available for

children’s rearing since they have to works, and this made fathers reluctantly fulfill

children’s needs (p. 19). Different family values also affect the fathers’ involvement.

The family’s different aspects of the fatherhood may lead to different definition to the

fathers’ role (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 15). For example, families that view

the fathers’ role as breadwinners may not consider rearing and emotional support as

an important support in parenting.

Cultural and Social Support. Cultural and social support is anther important

factor to influence fathers’ parenting decisions and parenting styles. For example,

“gender-appropriate masculinity or femininity” was an important issue in 1950s, but

today, more flexible in sex-role is insisted (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 11).

Accordingly, fathers’ parenting has become more acceptable. Even though it has been

expected for fathers to involve more in parenting, they still cannot separate from the

social stress to be a main wage earner for the family (Nielsen, 2012, p. 51). Fathers

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say that there are not enough space and time for them to participate more in parenting

their children (Halme, Astedt-Kurki, Tarkka, 2009, p. 115) Cameron, Moss, and

Owen (1999) describes that since the childcare works are conceptualized as women’s

work in society, it is difficult for men to step into this field and recognized because

there are not any equivalent model for them (p. 21).

Different cultural and ethnic backgrounds could lead to different parenting styles.

Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh (1987) have also found that

different ethnic backgrounds affect parents’ choosing different parenting styles (p.

1256). Costigan and Su (2008) also pointed out that parenting cognitions, which

include “the goals, expectations and beliefs that parents hold regarding childrearing

and parenting role”, is affected by parents’ ethnic cultural beliefs, and the host

country and the society that they are exposed to (p. 433). Chuang and Su’s (2009)

study states that Canadian Chinese parents, both fathers and mothers, use authoritative

parenting style, while mainland China parents tend to use authoritarian parenting style

(p. 331). Difference exists not only in different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, but it

also exists between urban and rural backgrounds. Urban parents in China tend to

show less control of their children than the parents in rural area (Chen, Bian, Xin,

Wang, & Silbereisen, 2010, p. 267).

Children’s Age and Self-competency. Children’s age and self-competency is

another factor. Luccie and Davis (1991) studied the father-child relationships in the

children’s different developmental stages, and they found out that fathers showed

more caring and affection to preschool-age children, and it was because the fathers

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realized that this age-group needed more love, care, and fathers’ responsibilities (p.

232). They also found that even though the fathers’ involvement in preschool children

is on the highest level throughout the children’s different developmental stages, the

fathers’ satisfaction level towards their role showed the lowest level (Luccie & Davis,

1991, p. 233). In other words, fathers feel the least confident and satisfied of their

parenting with preschool children, comparing with elder ones.

Other studies also supported this idea. Huang and Prochner (2004) have found

out that parenting style is related with children’s “self-efficacy, self-esteem, and

self-concept, and these motivational components of self-regulated learning may in

turn influence students’ self regulated learning strategy use “ (p. 229). Chen, Liu and

Li (2000) examined Chinese parents’ three parenting dimensions - warmth, control,

and indulgence, and they found that the level of parental warmth and control declines

as children’s ages grow (p. 413). Parents are found to be more tolerant to infant and

younger children, when they are being strict and demanding when the children are

getting old (Ho, 1989, p. 160). Fathers tend to take more disciplinarian role as their

children are getting older and reach the “age of understanding” (Ho & Kang, 1984, p.

1009). Ho and Kang(1984) have found out that perceptions towards the “age of

understanding” is younger for the younger generation fathers (p. 1009).

Children’s Gender. Studies have proved that children’s gender influences

parents’ parenting styles. Boys found to be more under parental control than girls do

(Chen, Liu, & Li, 2000, p. 412). Chen, Bian, Xin, Wang, and Silbereisen (2010)

found that parents tend to control boys more than control girls according to the belief

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that girls misbehave less than boys (p. 267). Fathers also found to be more likely

involved in the activities with their sons than with their daughters (Fagan, 1999, p. 17).

Female adolescents mentioned that maternal parenting style were more harsh and

demanding, while male adolescents did not agree (Shek, 1998, p. 535).

Fathers’ parenting decisions are also influenced by other factors. For example,

Nord, Brimhall, and West (1997) have found that fathers’ involvement in

kindergarten and school activities is also related with positive school climate (p. 79).

Leung, Lau, and Wai-Lim (1998) found that parental education level influences

parents’ decisions of choosing authoritarianism and its effect on children’s school

achievements (p. 169). Higgins (2005) found that fathers perceived four factors

related to family-centered practices – respectful communication, strengths-focused

support, sensitive servide delivery, and collaboration (p. 104).

2.4 The Effect of Fathers’ Parenting

Fathers’ involvement decision and their parenting styles are affected by many

factors. Their parenting decision and parenting styles also affect their children in

different ways. Darling and Stainberg (1993) argue that to understand how parenting

influence children’s development, researchers should understand three integrate parts

of parenting, which are “the goals towards which the socialization is directed; the

parenting practices parents use to help children to reach those goals; and the parenting

style, or emotional climate, within the socialization occurs” (p. 488).

It is obvious that mother’s bond with children are essential to the children’s lives

for “early development, security, and well-being”, but these advantages from the bond

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can also be achieved with other primary carers including fathers (Thornton &

Bricheno, 2006, p. 7). Lamb and Tamis-LeMonda (2004) insist that fathers affect the

course of their children’s development, and they also are affectively and formatively

salient (p. 1). Fathers’ influence could be in various ways including education,

behavior, cognition psychology, social, future role model, and even indirectly

influence children’s various development.

Fathers’ parenting can affect children’s educational development. Fathers’

behavior, attitudes, and messages may make influence to their children because

fathers usually spend less time with their children, and according when they

communicate with their children they tend to speak in different ways that “challenge

children’s linguistic and pragmatic abilities” due to their unfamiliarity of the

children’s language (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 9). Also, the earlier fathers

involve in children’s education and socialization, the better influence the children

may get (Gadsden & Ray, 2003, p. 2). Study indicates that, different from mothers’,

fathers’ warmth to their children contribute more in children’s social and academic

achievement, whereas mothers’ were more in children’s emotional adjustment (Chen,

Liu, & Li, 2000, p. 413). Some researchers found that fathers show less control of

their children than mothers (Chen, Bian, Xin, Wang, & Silbereisen, 2010, p.267). In

contrast, some researchers found that fathers are more restrictive and less kind and

concerning than mothers (Shek, 1995). Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, and

Fraleigh (1987) found that both authoritarian and permissive parenting style could

negatively affect adolescents’ academic achievements (p. 1245).

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Fathers’ parenting can also affect the children’s behavior. Teachers perceived that

children’s behavior problems have some relationships with their fathers’ Head Start

involvement (Fagan, 1999, p. 17). Jewell et al. (2008) argued children who are born in

a family that mothers are authoritarian and fathers are permissive are more likely to

have problematic behaviors (p. 182). In contrast, children born in a more

father-involved family are less likely to have behavior problems (Jewell et al., 2008, p.

183).

Fathers’ involvement in parenting can influence children’s cognitive,

psychological, and social development. Riley, Holmes, Cornwell, and Blume (1985)

have found that fathers’ involvement at home positively benefits children’s

self-concept (p. 9). Also, it has been found that fathers and mothers both affect

children in “virtue of nurturant personal and social characteristics” (Lamb &

Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 6). Lamb and Tamis-LeMonda (2004) insisted that children

who have two highly involved parents, rather than one, has better cognitive

competence (p. 8). It has been found out that children who have stable, supportive,

and reciprocal relationships with their fathers tend to be more psychologically stable

than those unstable relationships with their fathers (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p.

10). Paternal warmth and maternal control influence children’s social adjustment and

well-being “through the mediators of self-esteem and relationship harmony (Stewart,

Rao, Bond, Mc-Bridge-Chang, Fielding, & Kennard, 1998, p. 355). Stewart, Rao,

Bond, MacBridge-Chang, Fielding, and Kennard (1998) say that parental warmth

positively affect “well-being, partly through increasing self-esteem and harmonious

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relationships, whereas dominating control would have the opposite effect on these

mediators of well-being” (p. 349).

Fathers’ parenting can directly influence children’s future because children grow

up looking at their fathers. Children consider their parents and relatives as the most

influencing role models, and girls usually choose female relatives as their role models,

and boys tend to choose male relatives as their role model (Thornton & Bricheno,

2006, p. 10). Thus, especially for the families who have a boy, the fathers’ roles are

essential. Fathers’ involving in childcare can help the children to change their

stereotypical views of “breadwinners” and to declare men’s role as “carers” (Ruxton,

1992, p. 25). Bjørnholt (2010) concluded that more fathers’ parenting will have more

effects on children’s future gender relations, and this could pass to the next generation

(p. 227). Lamb and Tamis-LeMonda (2004) listed out children with parents who have

less sex-stereotyped roles insist less sex-stereotyped attitudes (p. 8).

Fathers also indirectly influence children. For example, fathers’ economic

support for the children and the family leads to indirect positive development of the

children’s emotional health and rearing (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 9). Also,

fathers’ emotional support for the children’s mothers, as well as the sharing of

housework can indirectly facilitates the relationship between the children and the

mothers, and it finally influences children positively (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004,

p. 9).

However, there are also some researches that do not consider fathers’ roles salient.

Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda (2004) found that fathers and mothers influence the

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children in similar ways with similar parenting styles and mechanisms, and what

matters was the “parental warmth, nurturance and closeness” rather that which parent

involved in children’s parenting (p. 10).

As this has been saying, some researchers suggest ways for fathers to get more

involved in parenting. Nielsen (2012) suggests: 1) a father should be participated in

wide raged activities at home, 2) a father should keep the balance between being kind

and controlling their children, and 3) a father should be a good guide and connector of

the children to the school, society, and etc. (Nielsen, 2012, p. 55) Fathers can practice

and improve their parenting skills by attending more activities with their children

together (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 2004, p. 13).

Gadsden and Ray (2003) also suggest some ways that fathers could be involved

in children’s education, especially in children’s early literacy. Fathers could involve

in children’s education at home from daily lives, for example, reading stories,

choosing books together with their children, learning street signs, or just simple

chatting (Gadsden & Ray, 2003, p. 5). They also could be involved through family

programs or workshop with follow-up activities requires both father and mother’s

participations (Gadsden & Ray, 2003, p. 5). Fathers with low literacy skills could

simply be involved with reading aloud, singing songs, or develop literacy-related

games which could help their readings and writings (Gadsden & Ray, 2003, p. 5).

2.5 Literature Gap

Since Baumrind’s parenting typology is suggested, studies about the parenting

style are widely conducted. Many studies have conducted to look for the parenting

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styles in mothers’ side, but research on fathers’ parenting is limited. Also, many

studies have been conducted to compare Chinese parenting styles and western

countries’ parenting styles, but the mainstream of Chinese parenting style between

authoritative and authoritarian is still unsettled, and more empirical evidence and

research about the mainstream of Chinese parents’ parenting style, and Chinese

fathers’ parenting style is necessary.

Besides, not many researches have been conducted to look at the influential

factors of Chinese father’s parenting style, except for the cultural influence. Therefore,

more studies about the influential variables about the Chinese parenting could be

conducted. This study wants to look at these two parts – the mains stream of Chinese

fathers’ parenting style, as well as the influential variables of Chinese fathers’

parenting style.

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Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1 Statement of Research Questions

The present study targets to explore Chinese fathers’ parenting styles, while

analyzing reality TV show, “Where are we going, dad” season one. The main research

question is: what is Chinese fathers’ parenting style in early childhood education?

Two sub-questions of this study are:

1. What is the parenting style of the five fathers shown in the TV program?

2. Are there any differences in their parenting? If yes, what are the differences

and why there are such differences?

3.2 Overview of Research Design

This study will use qualitative approach. Mukherji and Albon (2010) say that the

focus on qualitative study is to study small population more in detail and to

acknowledge different viewpoints (p. 25). Studying the fathers’ parenting style in

China is a complex research because of the huge population and diversity due to

different ethnic groups. The author wants to make it concise but deep and intends to

use small population to go more in detail to explore Chinese fathers. Therefore,

qualitative research is a good choice for this study to analyze the controversial and

complex issue. This study is s multiple case study of the five celebrity fathers’

parenting styles in the two seasons of the TV show. Case study is one of the popular

methods in social science research. Baxter and Jack (2008) state that qualitative case

study is “an approach to research that facilitates exploration of a phenomenon within

its context using a variety of data sources” (p. 544). Researchers are suggested to use

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case study when the research questions seek to explain some present circumstance,

when the researcher “has little or no control over behavioral events”, and when the

study is a contemporary phenomenon (Yin, 2014, p. 2).

A multiple case study allows the researcher to “analyze within each setting and

across settings” (Baxter & Jack, 2008, p. 550). In multiple case studies, the cases need

to have some connections and similarities (Stake, 2006, p. 1). In a multiple case study,

the researcher should analyze cases to seek the similarities and differences, as well as

the relationships among the cases (Baxter & Jack, 2008, p. 550). This study is using

the five different fathers’ parenting cases to find the relationship between each other,

and finally seek the general similarity to find out Chinese fathers’ parenting style.

This study will finally look for the five fathers’ parenting styles in the TV show.

Followed up, the following variables will be tested:

1. The influential factor one: the children’s age. Whether age matters in Chinese

fathers’ parenting?

2. The influential factor two: the children’s gender. Whether gender matters in

Chinese fathers’ parenting?

3. The influential factor three: the fathers’ cultures. Whether culture matters in

Chinese fathers’ parenting? (Taiwan versus Mainland China)

3.3 Participants

This study will analyze the reality TV Show called “Where Are We Going, Dad”,

season one, broadcasted since October 2013 that have 12 episodes in total. Therefore,

the participants of this study will be the five celebrity fathers in the TV show. This

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program is originated from Korean program, and five pairs of fathers and children are

participated in season one. The fathers’ professions are all different - they are actors, a

director, an athlete, and a model. The TV show reached the highest audience rating

among all the TV shows, the reading rates in the Sina Weibo (a Chinese

microblogging) of the TV show had reached to twenty billion, the celebrity and the

children’s endorsement fee went up to two million Chinese Yuan (“The comparison

of the audience rating”, 2014). Not only the TV show and the celebrities, but also the

places they went, even some places are just broadcasted only one minute in the show,

also became popular spots for travelers (Wang, 2013). The TV show was so popular

that they even published two movies called “where are we going, dad”. The influence

of the “Where are we going, Dad” in China is tremendous.

Has this been saying, the content analysis about the TV show has a significant

meaning to put the fathers in real situations and see what parenting styles they show.

Usually, the fathers do not have many chances to take care of their children by

themselves, and this TV show just gave the chances and made the situation for the

fathers to do the parenting by themselves. With many situations, different places,

various situations, the ten fathers’ parenting styles will be reviewed to finally find out

Chinese fathers’ parenting styles in general.

3.4 Measure

3.4.1 Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire

The analysis will be done by the researcher using Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen,

and Hart’s (1995) Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ). PSDQ is a

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good measurement instrument with good reliability and validity, and it also is proven

to be suitable for “China’s national conditions and cultural background” (Fu et al.,

2013, p. 540). Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, and Hart (1995) have mentioned that this

measure was applicable for both mothers and fathers who were parents of

preschool-age children, so this questionnaire is the exactly right one for this study (p.

822).

Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, and Hart (1995) analyzed Baumrind’s three

parenting styles, their advantages and disadvantages, Block’s (1965) Child-rearing

Practices Report, Rickel and Biasatti’s (1982) questionnaire that went after Block’s

research, Kochanska, et al.’s (1989) strategy, and so on (p. 820). Then, they said they

intended to develop:

An empirical means of assessing global typologies consistent with Baumrind’s

main conceptualizations for parents of preadolescent children but also to identify

specific parenting practices that occur within the context of the typologies.

(Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart, 1995, p. 821)

Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire is developed based on Baumrind’s

theory, and it includes 62 items and three subscales – authoritative, authoritarian, and

permissive, with a 5-point Likert Scale rating (Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart,

1995, p. 822).

This study will use Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire to rate ten

celebrity fathers’ parenting styles in the two seasons of the TV show. Every father’s

parenting style in every episode will be analyzed by the researcher using PSDQ.

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There are five fathers and 12 episodes in total, so there will be 60 PSDQ samples

gathered. All the questionnaire samples will be filled out by the researcher only.

This study will look for the Chinese fathers’ parenting style in general. Also,

analyzing each of the ten fathers’ parenting style from samples, the differences of

their parenting styles according to their children’s different age and gender will be

analyzed.

3.4.2 Sampling

The researcher will take notes of the details of each father’s actions while

watching every episodes of the TV show. Every details in the TV show will be

written down, including the fathers’ actions, words, facial expression, and so on. Then

according to the notes, the researcher will fill out the questionnaire. Every father’s

performance in every episode will be scored using PSDQ.

3.4.3 Quantifying

After all the data is collected using PSDQ, the researcher will go through the

quantifying process. First of all, every father’s scores in each question in PSDQ will

be averaged. According to the parenting items and factors, questions in PSDQ will be

divided into following parts (Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart, 1995):

1. Authoritative items

1.1Warm and Involvement

1.2 Reasoning/ Induction

1.3 Democratic Participation

1.4 Good Natured/ Easy Going

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2. Authoritarian items

1.1 Verbal Hostility

1.2

Corporal Punishment

1.3 Non-Reasoning, Punitive Strategies

1.4 Directiveness

2.

Permissive items

2.1 Lack of Follow Through

2.2 Ignoring Misbehavior

2.3 Self Confidence

According to the above classification, every father’s mean in each factor will be

calculated. According to the calculated statistics, the five fathers’ average in three

parenting styles – authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting, and permissive

parenting, is tested. Finally, the five fathers’ general parenting style is decided

according to the data.

Table 1

Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire constructions

Parenting

Items

Parenting

Factors

Quest

-ion

Num-

bers

Questions

Warmth

&

1 He encourages his child to talk about the child’s

troubles.

3 He knows the names of his child’s friends.

5 He gives praise when his child is good.

9 He shows sympathy when his child is hurt of frustrated.

12 He gives comfort and understanding when his child is

upset.21 He is responsive to his child’s feelings or needs.

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Authoritati

-ve Items

Involve-

ment

27 He tells his child that he appreciates what the child tries

or accomplishes.

33 He is aware of problems or concerns about his child in

school.

35 He expresses affection by hugging, kissing, and holdinghis child.

39 He apologizes to his child when making a mistake in

parenting.

46 He has warm and intimate times together with his child.

Reasonin

-g/

Induction

16 He tells his child his expectations regarding behavior

before the child engages in an activity.

25 He gives his child reasons why rules should be obeyed.

29 He helps his child to understand the impact of behavior

by encouraging his child to talk about the consequences

of his/her own actions.

42 He talks it over and reasons with his child when the

child misbehaves.

53 He explains to his child how he feels about the child’s

good and bad behavior.

58 He explains the consequences of his child’s behavior.

62 He emphasizes the reasons for rules.

Democra

-tic

Parcitipat

-ion

22 He allows his child to give input into family rules.

31 He takes his child’s desires into account before asking

the child to do something.48 He encourages his child to freely express

(himself)(herself) even when disagreeing with parents.

55 He takes into account his child’s references in making

plans for the family.

60 He channels his child’s misbehavior into a more

acceptable activity.

Good

Natured/

Easy

Going

7 He jokes and plays with his child.

14 He is easy going and relaxed with his child.

18 He shows patience with his child.51 He shows respect for his child’s opinions by

encouraging the child to express them.

Verbal

Hostility

13 He yells or shouts when his child misbehaves.

23 He argues with his child.

32 He explodes in anger towards his child.

44 He disagrees with his child.

Corporal

Punishm-

2 He guides his child by punishment more than by reason.

6 He spanks when his child is disobedient.

19 He grabs the child when he/she is being disobedient.

37 He uses physical punishment as a way of disciplining his

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Authoritar

ian Items

ent child.

43 He slaps his child when the child misbehaves.

61 He shoves his child when the child is disobedient.

Non-Rea

-soning,

Punitive

Strategie

-s

10 He punishes by taking privileges away from his child

with little if any explanations.26 He appears to be more concerned with own feelings than

with his child’s feelings.

28 He punishes by putting his child off somewhere alone

with little if nay explanations.

47 When two children are fighting, he disciplines children

first and asks questions.

54 He uses threats as punishment with little or no

justification.

56 When his child asks why (he)(she) has to conform, he

states: because I said so, or I am your parent and I want

you to.

Directive

-ness

17 He scolds and criticizes to make his child improve.

40 He tells his child what to do.

50 He scolds or criticizes when his child’s behavior doesn’t

meet our expectations.

59 He demands that his child does/do things.

Permissive

Items

Lack of

Follow

Through

11 He spoils his child.

20 He states punishments to his child and does not actually

do them.34 He threatens his child with punishment more often than

actually giving it.

38 He carries out discipline after his child misbehaves.

41 He gives into his child when the child causes a

commotion about something.

49 He bribes his child with rewards to bring about

compliance.

Ignoring

Misbeha-vior

8 He withholds scolding and/ or criticism even when his

child acts contrary to his wishes.

15 He allows his child to annoy someone else.

36 He ignores his child’s misbehavior.

45 He allows his child to interrupt others.

Self

Confiden

-ce

4 He finds it difficult to discipline his child.

24 He appears confident about parenting abilities.

30 He is afraid that disciplining his child for misbehavior

will cause the child to not like his/her parents.

52 He sets strict well-established rules for his child.

57 He appears unsure on how to solve his child’s

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misbehavior.

3.5 Procedure

The study will follow the following steps:

1. Analyze each father’s parenting style using PSDQ in every episodes,

2. Find out Chinese fathers’ parenting style in general from the gathered samples,

3. Analyze five fathers’ parenting styles one by one,

4. Look for the influential factors of the Chinese fathers’ parenting styles – age,

gender, and the culture.

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Chapter 4: Results

This research is to investigate Chinese fathers’ parenting styles through analyzing

a Chinese reality TV show, “Where are we going, dad” season one. While doing so,

this study is also looking for the significant differences of the fathers’ parenting styles

according to children’s different ages and gender.

All the episodes in season one are analyzed using Parenting Style and

Dimensions Questionnaire with 62 item and five-scale Likert-type questionnaire.

Every father’s performance in each episode is scored using this questionnaire. The

questionnaire measures three global parenting style variables of Baumrind’s (1971)

typologies, containing 27 authoritative items, 20 authoritarian parenting style related

items, and 15 permissive items (Robinson, C. C., Mandleco, B., Olsen, S. F., & Hart,

C., 1995, p. 822). In authoritative items, the questions are designed to answer four

parenting related factors – “warmth and involvement”, “reasoning or induction”,

“democratic participation”, and “good natured or easy going” (Robinson, C. C.,

Mandleco, B., Olsen, S. F., & Hart, C., 1995, p. 823). In authoritarian items, the

factors are “verbal hostility”, “corporal punishment”, “non-reasoning and punitive

strategies”, and “directiveness” (Robinson, C. C., Mandleco, B., Olsen, S. F., & Hart,

C., 1995, p. 824). Finally, in permissive related questions, the factors are “lack of

follow through”, “ignoring misbehavior”, and “self confidence” (Robinson, C. C.,

Mandleco, B., Olsen, S. F., & Hart, C., 1995, p. 825).

Every father’s parenting style and factors in each episode are analyzed and scored.

Then each father’s parenting style and factors in general, from all the episodes, is

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analyzed. In the end, the five fathers’ average parenting style is generalized averaging

all the scores of the five fathers’ in season one.

4.1 Each Father’s Parenting Style Analysis

4.1.1 Zhiying Lin’s parenting style

Lin is a famous Taiwanese singer, actor, and racecar driver, raising a four-year

old son, Kimi. Kimi is one of the youngest children in the TV show, and Lin and

Kimi showed the best intimacy through the whole season among the five pairs of

fathers and children. He showed the highest score in authoritative parenting items –

with an average of 3.85. Also, he showed the highest scores in all the four

authoritative factors: 4.08 in “warm and involvement”, 3.39 in “reasoning or

induction”, 3.25 in “democratic participation”, and 4.73 in “good natured or easy

going”. His scores in authoritarian items and permissive items were very low: an

average 1.4 in authoritarian items, and 2.06 in permissive related items. Overall, he

used authoritative parenting style with a specifically high score in “good natured or

easy going” factor. He appeared to be calm and patient and he never showed anger

towards his children through out all the episodes.

Table 2

Zhiying Lin’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12

Authoritative:

Warm &

Involvement

4 4.09 4.18 4.55 3.81 4.27 4.27 4.18 2.73 4.09 4.55 4.27

Authoritative:Reasoning/

Induction

2.57 2.57 2.43 3.86 2.71 4.71 4.43 4.86 2.29 3 3.29 2.57

Authoritative:Democratic

2.8 2.4 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.6 3.4 3.4

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Participation

Authoritative:

Good Natured/

Easy Going

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2.25 4.5 5 5

Authoritarian:

VerbalHostility

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2.25 1.75 1 1

Authoritarian:Corporal

Punishment

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.17 1.33 1 1

Authoritarian:

Non-Reasonin

g, Punitive

Strategies

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1.17 1.5 1.17 1

Authoritarian:

Directiveness2.5 2.5 2 2 2 3 2.75 2.5 3 2.75 3 2.5

Permissive:

Lack of

Follow

Through

1.67 2.67 1.67 2.83 1.67 1.67 2 2 2.67 3 2.33 2

Permissive:

Ignoring

Misbehavior

2.75 2 2.75 2 2 2 2 2 1.75 1.5 2 2

Permissive:

Self

Confidence

2 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 3.4 1.8 1.8 1.8

4.1.2 Liang Zhang’s parenting style

Zhang is a Chinese model, and he participated in the program with his five-year

old son, Tiantian (nickname of his child). Tiantian said in an interview in episode 10

that his father Zhang is like a big brother to him. Zhang also acknowledged this

notion. He also showed a high score in authoritative items with an average 3.67 –

second highest among all the five fathers. His score in authoritarian items is also high

among the five fathers with 1.52 – second highest among all the five fathers. It can be

observed that his parenting style is changing through all the episodes, that in the first

episode, he showed a very good natured and authoritative parenting style, while in the

last episode he was influenced by another father, Guo, and his parenting style had

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some factors of authoritarian parenting style. His permissive items had a low score

with 2.06. Overall, he used authoritative parenting style with a high score in “good

natured or easy going” factor.

Table 3

Liang Zhang’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12

Authoritative:

Warm &

Involvement

3.64 3 3.45 3.81 3.81 4.18 4 4 3.91 4 4.36 4.27


Induction

2 3.57 3.43 3.71 2.57 2.43 2.57 4.29 2.71 3 3.71 2.57

Authoritative:

DemocraticParticipation

2.6 2.2 2.4 3.4 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.6 2.8 3 3.4

Authoritative:

Good Natured/

Easy Going

4 3.75 4.5 5 4.5 4.75 4.5 4.75 5 4.5 4.75 5

Authoritarian:

Verbal

Hostility

2 2.25 1.75 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.25 1.5 1

Authoritarian:

Corporal

Punishment

1.17 1.17 1.17 1 1 1.17 1 1 1 1 1 1

Authoritarian:

Non-Reasonin

g, Punitive

Strategies

1.17 1.17 1.67 1.83 1 1 1 1 1 1.17 1 1

Authoritarian:

Directiveness

2.75 3 3.5 3 3 3 3 3 2.25 2.75 3.25 2.75

Permissive:Lack of

Follow

Through

1.5 2.67 2 3.33 1.67 1.67 1.67 2 2.5 2.83 2.17 2.17

Permissive:Ignoring

Misbehavior

2.25 1.75 1.75 2 2 2 2 2 1.75 1.5 2 2

Permissive:

SelfConfidence

2.4 1.8 2.2 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 3 2.2 1.8 1.8

4.1.3 Liang Tian’s parenting style

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Tian is a male Chinese former diver, who won the 10 m platform Olympics

champion in the 2000 Sydney Olympics. He came to the show with his five-year old

daughter, Cindy. All his scores in three parenting items were under the average. His

authoritative item showed an average of 3.11, authoritarian item score was 1.46, and

permissive item score was 1.96. His average scores in “lack of follow through” factor

and “self confidence” factor in permissive items showed the lowest among the five

fathers. Cindy was an emotional girl, and he showed low parenting skills to comfort

her when her emotions broke out. In the first season, Cindy got emotional and did not

stop crying, and Tian did not know how to deal with the matter and showed

uncertainty in parenting. However, as time pass by, his parenting skills got improved

and he himself seemed to be more patient and confident with Cindy. Among all the

five fathers, his score in “good natured or easy going” in authoritative items was the

lowest with 3.5. In general, he also used authoritative parenting style.

Table 4

Liang Tian’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12

Authoritative:

Warm &

Involvement

2.72 2.81 3.82 3.82 3.45 4 3.45 3.73 2.36 4.36 4.64 4.09


Induction

2.71 2.29 1.71 2.86 1.86 1.71 2.86 4.14 2.71 2.71 3.29 1.71

Authoritative:

Democratic

Participation

1 1.2 2.6 2.8 2.4 1.8 3 2.8 1.6 2.8 3.4 3.2

Authoritative:

Good Natured/

Easy Going

1.5 2.5 2.75 4 4 3.25 3.75 4.25 2.5 4.25 4.75 4.5

Authoritarian:

VerbalHostility

3.25 3.25 1 1 1 1.75 1 1 2 1.5 1 1

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Authoritarian:

Corporal

Punishment

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Authoritarian:

Non-Reasonin

g, PunitiveStrategies

1.33 1.5 1 1 1.17 1 1 1 2 1.33 1 1

Authoritarian:

Directiveness

3.5 2.5 1.25 2 2.5 1.5 3.25 2.5 2.25 2.5 3 2.75

Permissive:Lack of

FollowThrough

1.83 2.17 1.67 2.17 1.67 1.67 1.5 1.67 2 2.5 2.33 1.83

Permissive:Ignoring

Misbehavior

1.5 1.5 2.5 2 2 2 2 2 2.75 2 2 2

Permissive:

Self

Confidence

1.8 2 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 2 2.4 2.6 1.8 1.8

4.1.4 Yuelun Wang’s parenting style

Wang is a Chinese director, who took part in the program with a four-year old

daughter, Angela. Wang in the first few episodes showed a passive side in parenting,

and he himself also acknowledged in the first episode that he was not a skillful father

and that he did not usually participate in parenting at home. In authoritative,

authoritarian, and permissive items, his score in authoritative items showed the

highest with an average of 2.92. However, this score was the lowest average score in

authoritative items among all the five fathers. In detail, his scores in “warm and

involvement” factors and “reasoning or induction” factors showed the lowest scores

in all the five fathers. His authoritarian score was 1.73, which was also the lowest

score among the five fathers. Wang did not show much authoritarian side in parenting

in the TV show, and as time goes by, Wang started to feel confident in his parenting

practices, and showed lots of intimate times with Angela. In contrast, his average

permissive item score was 2.16, which was the highest among all the five fathers. He

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4.1.5 Tao Guo’s parenting style

Guo is a Chinese actor, and he participated in the TV show with a six-year old

son, Shitou (nickname of his child), the oldest child among the five children. Guo was

a stricter father comparing with the others. He usually disciplined his child when his

child disobeyed or did misbehaviors. His average score in authoritative items were

3.07, not the lowest. However, his average score in authoritarian items were 1.77, the

highest among all the five fathers. His scores in “verbal hostility” factor and

“directiveness” factor showed the highest among all the fathers. When Shitou does

misbehaviors, many times, he exploded in anger and yelled at Shitou. He also

disagreed with his child sometimes, and he believes that scolds and criticizes makes

his child improve. Overall, his parenting style could also be considered as

authoritative parenting style.

Table 6

Tao Guo’s Average Scores in Each Factor in Every Episode

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12

Authoritative:

Warm &Involvement

3.18 2.64 3.09 2.91 3.55 2.91 2.55 2.91 3.82 3.64 4.64 3.91

Authoritative:

Reasoning/Induction

1.86 3.14 2.71 3 2.71 2.14 3.43 4.43 3 2.71 3.29 3

Authoritative:

Democratic

Participation

2 1.8 1.4 3.2 2.2 2 1.4 1.4 3.4 2.6 3.2 2.6

Authoritative:Good Natured/

Easy Going

3.5 3.5 3.75 1 4 4 3 3.25 4.5 4.5 5 4.5

Authoritarian:

VerbalHostility

2 3.5 1.5 1 1.5 2 4.25 3.75 1 1 1 1

Authoritarian:Corporal

1 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 1.17 1 1.17 1 1

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Punishment

Authoritarian:

Non-Reasonin

g, Punitive

Strategies

1.33 2 1.67 1 1 1 1.67 1.83 1.33 1.33 1 1

Authoritarian:Directiveness

3 4 2.75 2.75 2.5 3.25 5 3.75 2.75 2.75 3 3

Permissive:Lack of

FollowThrough

1.33 2.33 1.67 2.33 1.83 1.83 2.17 2.17 2.83 2.67 2.17 2

Permissive:

Ignoring

Misbehavior

1.5 1.25 1.75 2 2 1.75 1 1.5 2 2 2 2

Permissive:

Self

Confidence

1.6 2 1.6 1.6 2.2 1.6 2.2 2.2 3.6 2.4 1.8 1.8

Table 7

Five fathers’ parenting factors average scores

Lin,

Zhiying

Zhang,

Liang

Tian, Liang Wang,

Yuelun

Guo, Tao

Authoritative

Factor: Warm &Involvement

4.08 4.03 3.58 3.24 3.27

Authoritative

Factor:

Reasoning/

Induction

3.39 3.06 2.66 2.21 2.96

Authoritative

Factor:

Democratic

Participation

3.25 3.02 2.38 2.38 2.23

Authoritative

Factor: Good

Natured/ EasyGoing

4.73 4.58 3.50 3.96 3.75

Authoritarian

Factor: Verbal

Hostility

1.17 1.35 1.56 1.10 2.04

Authoritarian

Factor:Corporal

Punishment

1.04 1.06 1 1.11 1.10

Authoritarian

Factor:

Non-Reasoning,Punitive

1.51 1.17 1.20 1.15 1.31

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Strategies

Authoritarian

Factor:

Directiveness

2.54 2.94 2.46 1.73 3.21

Permissive

Factor: Lack ofFollow Through

2.15 2.18 1.94 2.32 2.07

PermissiveFact

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