Zvyšování konkurenceschopnosti studentů oboru botanika a učitelství biologie

CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0316

© 2011 B. Mieslerová, A. Lebeda, (KB PřF UP v Olomouci)

GENERAL MYCOLOGY

Prof. Ing. Aleš Lebeda, DrSc.RNDr. Barbora Mieslerová, Ph.D.

LIST OF RECOMMENDED LITERATURE

Alexopoulos, C.J., Mims, C.W., Blackwell, M.: Introductory Mycology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996.

Deacon, J.W.: Modern Mycology. Blackwell Science Ltd., Oxford,

1997.

http://helios.bto.ed.ac.uk/bto/FungalBiology/

Carlile, M.J., Watkinson, S.C., Gooday, G.W.: The fungi. Academic Press, San Diego, 2001.

Dix, N.J., Webster, J.: Fungal Ecology. Chapman & Hall, London, 1995.

Griffin, D.H.: Fungal Physiology. Willey-Liss, New York, 1994. Gryndler, M. (eds.):

Mykorhizní symbióza. Academia, 2004.

Isaac, S.: Fungal-Plant Interactions, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991. Kavanagh, K. (ed.):

Fungi. Biology and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, 2005.

Kalina, T., Váňa, J.: Sinice, řasy, houby, mechorosty a podobné organismy v současné biologii. Praha, Karolinum 2005,

Klán, J.: Co víme o houbách. SPN Praha, 1989

Ingold, C.T., Hudson, H.J. (1996): The biology of fungi. Chapman & Hall, London, UK.

Kendrick, B. 1992. The Fifth Kingdom, 2nd edition. Mycologue Publications, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.

http://www.mycolog.com/fifthtoc.html

Váňa, J.: Systém a vývoj hub a houbových organismů. UK, Praha, 1996.

JOURNALS

In the Czech Republic

Česká mykologie Czech Mycology

ČVSMMykologické listy

ČVSM

Mykologický sborník

ČMS

MYCOTAXON

Order dept. Mycotaxon, USA

JOURNALS

MYCOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Elsevier ScienceThe Netherlands

MYCOLOGIA

APT Press

MYCOLOGIST

Elsevier ScienceThe Netherlands

FIELD MYCOLOGY

Elsevier ScienceThe Netherlands

FUNGAL GENETICS AND BIOLOGY

Elsevier

FUNGAL CHARACTERIZATIONNutrition: Heterotrophic (photosynthesis lacking) and absorptive (ingestion rare), exceptionally fagocytosis.

Thallus: Plasmodial, amoeboid or pseudoplasmodial Unicellular or philamentous (mycelial, septate or nonseptate) Nonmotile but motile states (zoosporas) may occur

Cell wall: Well-defined, typicaly chitinised (cellulose in Oomycota), periplast (Myxomycota). Nuclear status: Eukaryotic, multinucleate, the mycelium being homo- or heterokaryotic, haploid, dikaryotic, or diploid, the last being usually of limited duration.Life cycle: Simple to complex.Sexuality: Asexual or sexual and homo- or heterothallic.Sporocarps: Microscopic or macroscopic and showing limited tissue differentiation.Habitat: Ubiquitous as saprofytes, symbionts, parasites or hyperparasitesDistribution: Cosmopolitan

Whittaker´s scheme (1969)

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

Classifications of all cellular organisms into three domains EUKARYA, BACTERIA and ARCHAEA (Cavalier-Smith, 1998).

Suffixes used to denote taxonomic ranks of fungal taxa

Rank suffix

Division (Phylum) - mycota

Subdivision (Subphylum) - mycotina

Class - mycetes

Subclass - mycetidae

Order - ales

Family - aceae

SYSTEM OF FUNGI

Corliss, 1994; Cavalier-Smith 1995

Kingdom: PROTOZOA Amoeboid or plasmodial organisms naked in somatic stage, flagella without mastigonemata, able to ingest particulate food

Phylum: MYXOMYCOTA Amoeboid organisms or grow as a network of plasmodium, that engulfs bacteria, and then form fruiting bodies that release spores

Phylum : PLASMODIOPHOROMYCOTAObligate intracellular parasites of plantae, algae and fungi, exist as naked plasmodia in the host cells; form highly persistent thick-walled resting spores.

Fuligo septica

Kingdom: CHROMISTA (STRAMENOPILA)One cell or hyphae organisms with cellulose-based walls and biochemical features resembling those of plants. Flagella with mastigonemata, nutrition exclusively absorptivePhylum : LABYRINTHULOMYCOTA

Phylum : OOMYCOTAHyphae aseptate; asexual reproduction by formation of motile, biflagellate zoospores in a sporangium; sexual reproduction by fusion of male sex organ (antheridium) and female sex organ (oogonium), leading to production of thick-walled resting spores (oospores)

Phylum : HYPHOCHYTRIOMYCOTAPseudoperonospora cubensis

Kingdom: FUNGI One cell or hyphae organisms with cell-wall containing chitin, flagella (only in chytrids) without mastigonemata, nutrition exclusively absorptive

Phylum : CHYTRIDIOMYCOTAUnicellular, or primitive chain of cells, sexual reproduction by fusion of motile gametes; asexual reproduction: sporangium with uniflagellate zoospores

Synchytrium endobioticum

Phylum : EUMYCOTAHyphae or yeasts; absence of motile spores

Subphylum: ZygomycotinaAseptate hyphae, sexual reproduction by fusion of sex organs (gametangia) leading to thick-walled resting spores (zygospores); asexual reproduction: sporangium producing non-motile spores.

Rhizopus nigricans

Subphylum: AscomycotinaHyphae with cross-wall (septa) or yeast, sexual reproduction by fusion of antheridium or spermatium with trichogyne on ascogon leading to development of an ascus with ascospores, asexual reproduction: conidias

Subphylum: BasidiomycotinaHyphae (with dolipore septum) or yeasts; asexual spores rare in most groups; sexual reproduction by fusion of compatible hyphae, leading ultimately to production of basidiospores on basidia, sometimes on or in large fruiting body

Morchella esculenta

Boletus edulis

Subphylum: DeuteromycotinaHyphae (with septa) or yeasts; sexual reproduction absent, rare or unknown; asexual spores (conidia) formed in various ways

Septoria apii

Important differences between the Oomycota and true fungiOomycota True fungi

Zoospores Biflagellate; one smooth and one with mastigonemata

Uniflagellate; one smooth in the Chytridiomycota

Lysine biosynthesis Via diaminopimelic acid

Via α-aminoadipic acid

Mitochondria Cristae tubular Cristae plate-likeWall polysaccharides

Cellulose present; chitin also in some species

No cellulose; chitin usually present

Wall proteins Hydroxyproline present

Proline present

Features of the main groups of fungi

Group: Perforate septae +/-

Asexual sporulation:

Sexual sporulation:

‘Lower fungi’ :

Zygomycotina - non-motile sporangiospores

zygospore

Chytridiomycotina - motile zoospores oospore

‘Higher fungi’ :

Ascomycotina + conidiospores ascospore

Basidiomycotina + rare basidiospore

Deuteromycotina + conidiospores none

Other systems I.

Gaumann, 1950-1960

Archimycetes – organisms without cell wall in trophic stage

Phycomycetes – place of karyogamy and meiosis is zygota

- with zoospores (chytridiomycetes, oomycetes, plasmodiophoromycetes, hyphochytridiomycetes)

- without zoospores (zygomycetes, trichomycetes)

Ascomycetes – place of karyogamy and meiosis is ascus

Basidiomycetes – place of karyogamy and meiosis is basidie

heterobasidiomycetes, homobasidiomycetes

Deuteromycetes – only asexual stage

Other systems II.

Alexopulos, 1966

LOWER FUNGI

Myxomycetes

Phycomycetes ChytridiomycetesOomycetes Zygomycetes

HIGHER FUNGI

Ascomycetes HemiascomycetesEuascomycetes

Deuteromycetes

Basidiomycetes Homobasidiomycetes Heterobasidiomycetes

Other systems III. Arx, Kreisel, 1969; Webster 1970; Ainsworth 1973Myxomycota (Acrasiomycetes, Myxomycetes,

Plasmodiophoromycetes, Labyrinthulomycetes, Trichomycetes)

ChytridiomycotaOomycota Eumycota Zygomycetes

EndomycetesAscomycetes (Protoascomycetidae,

Ascohymenomycetidae, Ascoloculomycetidae)

DeuteromycetesBasidiomycetes (Holobasidiomycetidae

Phragmobasidiomycetidae)

Other systems IV.

Hawksworth, Kirk, Pergler, Sutton & Ainsworth, 1994

Myxomycota Dictyosteliomycetes Myxomycetes Plasmodiophoromycetes

Eumycota Mastigomycotina Oomycetes Chytridiomycetes

Zygomycotina

Ascomycotina

Basidiomycotina BasidiomycetesUstomycetesTeliomycetes

Deuteromycotina CoelomycetesHyphomycetes

Other systems V. Cavalier-Smith, 1998

3. DOMAIN: EUKARYA1. KINGDOM: PROTOZOA Acrasiomycota

MyxomycotaPlasmodiophoromycota

2. KINGDOM: CHROMISTA (STRAMENOPILA) LabyrinthulomycotaOomycota (Peronosporomycota) Hyphochytriomycota

3. KINGDOM: FUNGI ChytridiomycotaMicrosporidiomycota ZygomycotaAscomycota Basidiomycota

FOSSIL RECORDS ABOUR FUNGI The origin of the fungi appears to be very ancient They first appear in the fossil record coincidentally with the appearance of the land plants. Cambrium, Ordovician (500-350 mil) - Marine Oomycota and Chytridiomycota associated with algae and free livingSilurian (350-300 mil) - Septate fungi in association with plants and cyanobacteriaDevonian (300-250 mil) - Lignolytic fungi, Zygomycotina and Basidiomycotina Carboniferous (250-200 mil) - Basidiomycotina on woody plant residues Permian, Triassic (200- 150 mil) - Ectomycorrhizas formed with Basidiomycotina, Polyporales well established Jurassic, Cretaceous (75-150 mil) - Ascomycotina increasingly evident Tertiary (10-75 mil) - Development of ericoid endomycorrhiza with Ascomycotina and possibly some Deuteromycotina and Basidiomycotina

Period Age (x 106)

Major features of plant life in relation to fungi

Possible features of fungi

Tertiary 10-75 Modern flora established Development of ericoid endomycorrhiza with Ascomycotina and possibly some Deuteromycotina and Basidiomycotina

Cretaceous 75-100 Conifers dominant, appearance of Pinus spp. and potentially mycorrhizal Angiosperms

Ascomycotina increasingly evident

Jurassic 130-140 Luxuriant conifer and fern forests Ectomycorrhizas formed with Basidiomycotina, Polyporales well established

Triassic 160-180 Conifers

Permian 190-200 ConifersCarboniferous

200-250 Early Gymnosperms Basidiomycotina on woody plant residues

Devonian 250-300 Vascular plants, rhynia Lignolytic fungi, Zygomycotina and Basidiomycotina

Silurian 300-350 Evidence for lichenized algae, a bryophyte-like land flora and emergence of vascular plants

Septate fungi in association with plants and cyanobacteria

Ordovician 425Cambrian 500 Marine Oomycota and Chytridiomycota

associated with algae and free living

MODEL OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE THREE MODES OF FUNGAL NUTRITION

Biotrophs – fungi must obtain nutrition from living material (plant, animal)

Necrotrophs - fungi occur on living material, but must kill part of tissue for obtaining nutrition (toxins)

Saprotrophs - fungi living on dead material

Econutritional groups of fungi according to nutritional mode and ecological behaviour

Obligate biotrophs (OB) No capacity for saprotrophy or necrotrophyHemibiotrophs (HB) Initially biotrophic but then becoming necrotrophic,

saprotrophic potential as for obligate necrotrophsFacultatively saprotrophic hemibiotrophs (FSH)

Initially biotrophic but then becoming necrotrophic, a final saprotrophic phase then occurs

Obligate necrotrophs (ON) Normally necrotrophic, any saprophitic ability severely limited or restricted to survival in dead tissues

Facultatively saprotrophicnecrotrophs (FSN)

Normally necrotrophic with ability to become saprotrophic

Facultatively necrotrophicsaprotrophs (FNS)

Normally saprotrophic with ability to become necrotrophic

Obligate saprotrophs (OS) No capacity for necrotrophy or biotrophyFacultatively biotrophic saprotrophs (FBS)

Normally saprotrophic with some ability to become biotrophic

Facultatively saprotrophicbiotrophs (FSB)

Normally biotrophic with some ability to become saprotrophic

Concepts in fungal nutrition

Nutritional behaviour

Saprotrophic Necrotrophic Biotrophic

Ecological behaviour

Obligate Saprophytic

+ - -

FacultativeSymbiotic

+ + +

Obligate Symbiotic

- + +

+ = combination is creating parasitic form- = non-parasitic form

1. OBLIGATE BIOTROPHYCommon features: Intracellular penetration by cells or haustoria Invagination of plasmalemma and following perforation Ektoparasites (Erysiphales), endoparasites (Peronosporales) Hypersensitivity Host nucleus is living Host specialization Complicated or impossible cultivation in axenic culture

Examples: Plasmodiophora brassicae(Plasmodiophoromycota), Synchytrium endobioticum (Chytridiomycota), Peronosporales (Oomycota), Erysiphales, Taphrinales (Ascomycotina), Pucciniales, Ustilaginales, Tilletiales(Basidiomycotina) Blumeria graminis

2. HEMIBIOTROPHY

Form between necrotrophy and biotrophy Cultivation in axenic culture possible Highly reduced saprotrophic existence

Examples: Venturia inaequalis, Rhynchosporium secalis, Phytophthora infestans

Venturia inaequalisPhytophthora infestans

3. FACULTATIVELY SAPROTROPHIC HEMIBIOTROPHY

Crinipellis perniciosa(Basidiomycotina, obligate parazite of cacao)

Form between biotrophy, necrotrophy and saprotrophy Cultivation in axenic culture possible Highly specific parasites Frequently occurring in 2 different forms : monokaryotic mycelium (biotrophic) and dikaryotic mycelium (saprotrophic)

4. OBLIGATE NECROTROPHY

Not good developed ability for saprotrophic existence, time limited Persistence in death host tissues (mycelium, sclerotia, rhizomophs) Broad spectrum of hosts, diseases of fruits, leaves, stems and rootsNo problems with cultivation in axenic culture

Armillaria mellea, Václavka obecná

Sclerotinia sp.Hlízenka

5. FACULTATIVELY SAPROTROPHIC NECROTROPHS

6. FACULTATIVELY NECROTROPHIC SAPROTROPHS Ability of saproprophic and necrotrophic nutrition In contact with living host plant they are changing for necrotrophyAfter depletion of nutrition, persistence on death organic substrates, Broad spectrum of hosts, diseases of fruits and tubers No problems with cultivation in axenic culture

Examples : Aspergillus, Penicillium (Ascomycotina)

Rhizopus (Zygomycotina)

Rhizoctonia, Botrytis (Deuteromycotina) Penicillium, Aspergillus

7. OBLIGATE SAPROTROPHY No ability of necrotophy or biotrophy

Possibility of obtaining of nutrients from decomposition of sugars as well as more complicated compounds (cellulose, chitin, keratin)

Onygena equina Panaeolus on cattle dung

8. FACULTATIVELY SAPROTROPHIC BIOTROPHY

9. FACULTATIVELY BIOTROPHIC SAPROTROPHS

Ability of biotrophic and necrotrophic nutrition Frequently linked with occurrence of two different forms of pathogen: monokaryotic mycelium (saprotrofic phase) and dikaryotic mycelium (biotrofic phase) Highly specific parasites

Examples:

Hemiascomycetes Taphrinales(Ascomycotina),

Taphrina deformans